Physics:Hypersonic flight

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Short description: Flight faster than Mach 5 below 90 km

Hypersonic flight is flight through the atmosphere below altitudes of about 90 km (56 mi) at speeds greater than Mach 5, a speed where dissociation of air begins to become significant and heat loads become high. Speeds over Mach 25 had been achieved below the thermosphere as of 2020.[1]

Reentry vehicle (RV) after an 8,000-kilometre (5,000 mi) flight, 1959. Note the blackened tip of the RV due to aerodynamic heating. Compare to the aerodynamic heating effect on the iron meteorite on the right.

History

The first manufactured object to achieve hypersonic flight was the two-stage Bumper rocket, consisting of a WAC Corporal second stage set on top of a V-2 first stage. In February 1949, at White Sands, the rocket reached a speed of 8,290 km/h (5,150 mph), or about Mach 6.7.[2] The vehicle burned up on re-entry, and only charred remnants survived.

In April 1961, Russian Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel at hypersonic speed, during the world's first piloted orbital flight. Soon after, in May 1961, American Alan Shepard became the first American and second human to fly hypersonic when his capsule reentered the atmosphere at a speed above Mach 5 at the end of his suborbital flight over the Atlantic Ocean.[3]

In November 1961, American Robert White flew the X-15 research aircraft at speeds over Mach 6.[4][5] On 3 October 1967, in California, an X-15 reached Mach 6.7.[6]

A key technology for hypersonic flight is the Scramjet. The NASA X-43A flew on scramjet for 10 seconds, and then glided for 10 minutes on its last flight in 2004. The Boeing X-51 Waverider flew on scramjet for 210 seconds in 2013, reaching Mach 5.1 on its fourth flight test.

Space vehicle reentry was extensively studied.[7] The hypersonic regime is the subject of development during the 21st century, amid strategic competition between the United States, India, Russia, and China.[8]

Physics

Main article: Physics:Hypersonic speed

Stagnation point

The stagnation point of air flowing around a body is a point where its local velocity is zero. At this spot, moving air flows around this location. A shock wave forms, which deflects the air from the stagnation point and insulates the flight body from the atmosphere.[7] This can affect the lifting ability of a flight surface, needed to counteract its drag and subsequent free fall.[9][lower-alpha 1]

In order to maneuver in the atmosphere at beyond supersonic speeds, propulsion can still use airbreathing systems, but a ramjet is not sufficient to attain Mach 5, as a ramjet slows the airflow to subsonic speed.[11] Systems such as waveriders use a (first stage) rocket to boost a body into the hypersonic regime. Boost-glide vehicles use scramjets after their initial boost, in which the speed of the air passing through the scramjet remains supersonic. Munitions typically use a cannon for their initial boost.[12]

High temperature effect

Hypersonic flow is a high energy flow.[13] The ratio of kinetic energy to the internal energy of the gas increases as the square of the Mach number. When this flow enters a boundary layer, high viscous effects appear due to the friction between air and the speeding object. In this case, the kinetic energy is converted in part to internal energy and gas energy is proportional to the internal energy. Therefore, hypersonic boundary layers are high temperature regions due to the viscous dissipation of the flow's kinetic energy. Another region of high temperature flow is the shock layer behind the strong bow shock wave. In the case of the shock layer, the flow's velocity decreases discontinuously as it passes through the shock wave. This results in a loss of kinetic energy and a gain of internal energy behind the shock wave. Due to high temperatures behind the shock wave, dissociation of molecules in the air becomes significant. For example, for air at T > 2,000 K (1,730 °C; 3,140 °F), dissociation of diatomic oxygen into oxygen radicals is active: O2 → 2O[14]: 41 [15]) For T > 4,000 K (3,730 °C; 6,740 °F), dissociation of diatomic nitrogen into N radicals is active: N2 → 2N[14]: 39  Consequently, in this temperature range, a plasma forms:[16] —molecular dissociation followed by recombination of oxygen and nitrogen radicals produces nitric oxide: N2 + O2 → 2NO, which then dissociates and recombines to form ions: N + O → NO+ + e−[14]: 39  [17]

Low density flow

At standard sea-level condition for air, the mean free path of air molecules is about λ=68nm. At an altitude of 104 km (65 mi), where the air is thinner, the mean free path is λ=1ft=0.305m. Because of this, large free mean path aerodynamic concepts, equations, and results based on the assumption of a continuum, begin to break down, forcing consideration of aerodynamics from kinetic theory. This regime of aerodynamics is called low-density flow. For a given aerodynamic condition low-density effects depend on the value of a nondimensional parameter called the Knudsen number Kn, defined as Kn=λl where l is the typical length scale of the object considered. The value of the Knudsen number based on nose radius, Kn=λR, can be near one.

Hypersonic vehicles frequently fly at high altitudes and therefore encounter low-density conditions. Hence, the design and analysis of hypersonic vehicles sometimes require consideration of low-density flow. New generations of hypersonic airplanes may spend a considerable portion of their mission at high altitudes, and for these vehicles, low-density effects will become more significant.[13]

Thin shock layer

The flow field between the shock wave and the body surface is called the shock layer. As the Mach number M increases, the angle of the resulting shock wave decreases. This Mach angle is described as μ=sin−1(a/v) where a is the speed of the sound wave and v is the flow velocity. Since M=v/a, the equation becomes μ=sin−1(1/M). Higher Mach numbers position the shock wave closer to the body surface, thus at hypersonic speeds, the shock wave lies close to the body surface, resulting in a thin shock layer. At low Reynolds number, the boundary layer is thick and merges with the shock wave, leading to a viscous shock layer.[18]

Viscous interaction

The compressible flow boundary layer increases proportionately to the square of the Mach number, and inversely to the square root of the Reynolds number.

At hypersonic speeds, this effect becomes much more pronounced, due to the exponential impact of the Mach number. Since the boundary layer becomes so large, it interacts more viscously with the surrounding flow. The overall effect of this interaction is to create much higher skin friction than normal, causing greater surface heat flow. Additionally, surface pressure spikes, which results in a much larger aerodynamic drag coefficient. This effect is extreme at the leading edge and decreases as a function of length along the surface.[13]

Entropy layer

The entropy layer is a region of large velocity gradients caused by the strong curvature of the shock wave. The entropy layer begins at the nose of the aircraft and extends downstream close to the body surface. Downstream of the nose, the entropy layer interacts with the boundary layer which causes an increase in aerodynamic body surface heating. Although the shock wave at the nose at supersonic speeds is also curved, the entropy layer is only observed at hypersonic speeds because the magnitude of the curve is far greater at hypersonic speeds.[13]

Propulsion

Controlled detonation

Researchers in China used shock waves in a detonation chamber to compress ionized argon plasma waves moving at Mach 14. The waves were directed into magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generators to create a current pulse that could be increased to gigawatt scale, given enough argon gas.[19]

Rotating detonation

This section is an excerpt from Rotating detonation engine[ edit ]

Hybrid

Companies such as Hermeus, Venus Aerospace, and AstroMechanica are developing hybrid engines capable of operating from subsonic to hypersonic speeds.

Hybrid engines
Company 0-3 3-4 5+
Hermeus[20] Precooled P&W F100 turbojet Dive Ramjet
Venus Aerospace[20] Rotating detonation Ramjet Ramjet
AstroMechanica[21] Turbofan Turbojet Ramjet

Applications

Shipping

See: SR-72, § Mayhem

Transport consumes energy for three purposes: overcoming gravity, overcoming air/water friction, and achieving terminal velocity. Hypersonics addresses all three. Proponents claim that the net energy costs of hypersonic transport can be lower than those of conventional transport while slashing journey times.[22]

Stratolaunch Roc has been used to test hypersonic aircraft.[23]

Hermeus demonstrated transition from turbojet operation to ramjet operation on 17 November 2022,[24] without using a rocket or scramjet.[25]

Weapons

Main article: Engineering:Hypersonic weapon
Hypersonic weapon, demonstrating its non-parabolic trajectory (denoted in red), has a distinctive signature which is being tracked by one of the layers of the National Defense Space Architecture (§ NDSA) beginning in 2021. Tranche 0 is to begin deployment in 2022.[26]
  • The satellites of the NDSA, in gray, are to be deployed in constellations orbiting Earth, and constantly keep Earth in their view, depicted by the blue cones representing the fields of view of the satellite constellations. The satellites are to intercommunicate and serve the defensive systems arrayed against enemy hypersonic vehicles, and build a kill chain against them.
  • Conversely, the same satellites can be used to track friendly hypersonic weapons and perform battle damage assessment of their strikes against targets. See JADC2 (Joint all-domain command and control)

Two main types of hypersonic weapons are hypersonic cruise missiles and hypersonic glide vehicles.[lower-alpha 2][31] Scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles are limited to below 30 km (19 mi);[lower-alpha 3] while hypersonic glide vehicles can travel higher.

Hypersonic vehicles travel much slower than ballistic (i.e. sub-orbital or fractional orbital) missiles, because they travel in the atmosphere, while ballistic missiles travel in the vacuum above the atmosphere. However, they can use the atmosphere to manoeuvre, enabling large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory.[11] Hypersonic glide vehicles are typically launched with a ballistic first stage, then deploys wings and switch to hypersonic flight upon re-entering the atmosphere, allowing the final stage to evade missile defense systems that were designed for purely ballistic missiles.[34]

National efforts

Russia and China lead in hypersonic weapon development, trailed by the United States and other countries.[35][36][37][8][38]

China

China's XingKong-2 (星空二号, Starry-sky-2) waverider first flew on 3 August 2018.[39][40][41][42] In August 2021 China launched a boost-glide vehicle to low-earth orbit, circling Earth before maneuvering toward its target location, missing by two dozen miles.[43][44] However China claimed that the vehicle was a spacecraft, and not a missile.[45]

On July 2021 China tested a spaceplane.[46][47][48] An orbital trajectory would take 90 minutes for a spaceplane to circle Earth (which would defeat the mission of a weapon in hypersonic flight).[46] The Pentagon reported in October 2021 that two such hypersonic launches had occurred; one did not demonstrate the accuracy needed for a precision weapon;[43] the second demonstrated its ability to change trajectories.[49]

In 2022, China unveiled two more hypersonic models.[50][51] An AI simulation reported that a Mach 11 aircraft can outrun a Mach 1.3 fighter attempting to engage it, while firing its missile at the "pursuing" fighter. This strategy entails a fire control system to accomplish an over-the-shoulder missile launch, which did not exist as of 2023.[52]

In February 2023, the DF-27 covered 1,900 km (1,200 mi) in 12 minutes, according to leaked secret documents. The capability directly threatens Guam, and US Navy aircraft carriers.[53]

Russia

In 2016, Russia is believed to have conducted two successful tests of Avangard, a hypersonic glide vehicle. The third known test, in 2017, failed.[54] In 2018, an Avangard was launched at the Dombarovskiy missile base, reaching its target at the Kura shooting range, a distance of 5,955 km (3,700 mi).[55] Avangard used composite materials to withstand temperatures of up to 2,000 °C (3,630 °F), which it experienced at hypervelocity[56] Russia considered its initial carbon fiber solution to be unreliable,[57] and replaced it with new composite materials.[56] Two Avangard hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs)[58] were mounted on SS-19 ICBMs. On 27 December 2019 one was fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in the Orenburg Oblast.[59] In 2021 Russia launched a 3M22 Zircon antiship missile (standoff strike weapon) over the White Sea, as part of a series of tests.[60][61] In February 2022, a coordinated series of missile exercises, some hypersonic, were launched on 18 February 2022 in an apparent display of power projection. The launch platforms ranged from submarines in the Barents Sea, as well as from ships on the Black Sea south of Russia. The exercise included a RS-24 Yars ICBM, which was launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Northern Russia and reached its destination on the Kamchatka Peninsula in Eastern Russia.[62] Ukraine estimated a 3M22 Zircon was used against it, but it apparently did not exceed Mach 3 and was shot down 7 February 2024 in Kyiv.[63]

United States
See also: Engineering:Prompt Global Strike

The US launched a joint program across the entire Department of Defense to advance its hypersonic missile development around 2018.[64][72] Russian and Chinese tests prompted US responses.[73] By 2018, the AGM-183[74] and Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon[75] were in development.[76] At least one vendor was developing ceramics to handle the temperatures of hypersonic systems.[77] Over a dozen US hypersonic projects were active as of 2018.[76][78][75] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] The bulk of the hypersonics work remains at the Joint level.[88] The Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF) CFT supports Space and Missile Defense Command's pursuit of hypersonics.[91] [92] The Army and Navy's Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) successfully tested a prototype in March 2020. [93]

[87] In 2021 a wind tunnel for testing hypersonic vehicles was completed in Texas.[95] The Army's Land-based Hypersonic Missile was intended to have a range of 2,300 km (1,400 mi).[96]: 6  [71][97][98][99][100] By adding rocket propulsion to a shell or glide body, the joint effort shaved five years off the likely fielding time.[101][102] Hypersonics countermeasures require sensor data fusion: both radar and infrared sensor tracking data are required to capture the signature of a hypersonic vehicle in the atmosphere.[107] Privately developed hypersonic systems were under development.[108] Critics offered opinions.[109][110]

DoD tested a Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB) in 2020.[93][111] The Air Force dropped out of the tri-service hypersonic project in 2020.[112][113][114] Air Force chief scientist, Dr. Greg Zacharias stated that the US anticipated having hypersonic weapons by the 2020s,[115] hypersonic drones by the 2030s, and recoverable hypersonic drone aircraft by the 2040s.[116] DoD development focused on air-breathing boost-glide hypersonics systems.[117] Countering hypersonic weapons during their cruise phase requires longer-range radar, as well as space-based sensors, and systems for tracking and fire control.[117][118][103][119]

On 21 October 2021, the Pentagon stated that a test of a hypersonic glide body failed because its booster failed.[120] The test occurred at Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska, on Kodiak island.[121] Three rocketsondes at Wallops Island completed successful tests earlier that week.[121] On 29 October 2021, the booster for the Long-Range Hypersonic Weapon (LRHW) passed a static test; the first stage thrust vector control system was included.[122] On 26 October 2022, Sandia National Laboratories successfully tested hypersonic technologies.[123][124] On 28 June 2024, DoD announced a successful end-to-end test of the US Army's LRHW all-up round (AUR) and the US Navy's Conventional Prompt Strike. The missile was launched from the Pacific Missile Range Facility, Kauai, Hawaii.[125] In September 2021, and in March 2022, Raytheon/Northrop Grumman,[122][126][127] and Lockheed[128][129] respectively, successfully tested their DARPA-funded air-launched, scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missiles.[lower-alpha 3] In September 2022 Raytheon was selected to field their scramjet-powered hypersonic missile Hypersonic Attack Cruise Missile (HACM), by FY2027.[130][131]

In March 2024, Stratolaunch Roc launched TA-1, a vehicle that approached Mach 5 at 10.67 km (6.63 mi) in a powered flight, a risk-reduction exercise for TA-2.[132] In a similar development, Castelion launched its low-cost hypersonic platform in the Mojave desert in March 2024.[133]

In 2021, DoD was codifying flight test guidelines, knowledge gained from Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS), and other hypersonics programs,[134] for some 70 hypersonics R&D programs.[135][136] In 2021–2023, Heidi Shyu, the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering pursued a program of annual rapid joint experiments,[137] including hypersonics capabilities, to bring down the cost of development.[138][139] Hypersonic test beds were targeting test frequency of one per week.[140][141]

Iran

In 2022, Iran was believed to have constructed a hypersonic missile. Amir Ali Hajizadeh, the commander of the Air Force of the Islamic Republic of Iran's Revolutionary Guards Corps, announced the construction of their first hypersonic missile.[142] with a speed above Mach 13.[143][144]

Other programs

France,[145] Australia,[145] India,[146] Germany,[145] Japan,[145] South Korea,[147] and North Korea,[148] have hypersonic weapon projects/research programs.[145]

As of 202 Australia and the US jointly develop air-launched hypersonic missiles. The development was to build on the $54 million Hypersonic International Flight Research Experimentation (HIFiRE) under which both nations collaborated on over a 15-year period.[149] Companies were expected to contribute to the development of these missiles,[150] named SCIFIRE in 2022.[151][130]

Defenses

In May 2023 Ukraine shot down a Kinzhal with a Patriot missile.[152] IBCS, or the Integrated Air and Missile Defense Battle Command System is designed to work with Patriots and other missiles.

Rand 2017 assessment

In 2017 Rand Corporation estimated that in less than a decade, hypersonic missiles would proliferate.[153] In the same way that anti-ballistic missiles were developed as countermeasures to ballistic missiles, countermeasures to Hypersonics were not in development as of 2019.[11][154][57][155] $157.4 million was allocated in the FY2020 Pentagon budget for hypersonic defense, out of $2.6 billion for all hypersonic-related research.[96] $207 million of the FY2021 budget was allocated to defensive hypersonics.[135][156][70] Both the US and Russia withdrew from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in February 2019.[157][158][159] By 2021 the Missile Defense Agency was funding regional countermeasures against hypersonic weapons in their glide phase.[160][161][162][163][164][165] CSIS assessed that hypersonic defense should be take US priority over hypersonic weapons.[166][lower-alpha 4][167][168]

NDSA / PWSA

As part of their hypersonic vehicle tracking mission, the Space Development Agency (SDA) launched four satellites and the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) launched two satellites in 2024.[169][170] The satellites shared the same orbit, which allowed the SDA's wide field of view (WFOV) satellites and the MDA's medium field of view (MFOV) downward-looking satellites to traverse the same terrain. The SDA's four satellites are part of its Tranche 0 tracking layer (T0TL). The MDA's two satellites are HBTSS or Hypersonic and ballistic tracking space sensors.[lower-alpha 5]

Additional capabilities of Tranche 0 of the National defense space architecture (NDSA), also known as the Proliferated warfighting space architecture (PWSA) will be tested.[170][175]

Proposed

Aircraft

Artist depiction of the Halcyon commercial hypersonic transport aircraft proposed by the Hermeus corporation in flight.

Bombers

  • United States Expendable Hypersonic Air-Breathing Multi-Mission Demonstrator ("Mayhem")[211] Based on § HAWC and HSSW: "solid rocket-boosted, air-breathing, hypersonic conventional cruise missile", a follow-on to AGM-183A. As of 2020 no design work had been done. By 2022 Mayhem was to be tasked with ISR and strike missions,[212] as a possible bomber.[213][214] Leidos is preparing a system requirements review, and a conceptual design for these missions.[215] Draper Labs has begun a partnership with Leidos.[214] Kratos is preparing a conceptual design for Mayhem, using Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) digital engineering techniques in a System design agent team, a collaboration with Leidos, Calspan, and Draper.[216] DIU is soliciting additional Hypersonic and High-Cadence Airborne Testing Capabilities (HyCAT), for Mayhem.[217]

Cruise missiles

  • United States Advanced Hypersonic Weapon (AHW)[218]
  • United States Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC, pronounced "hawk"). September 2021: HAWC is DARPA-funded. Built by Raytheon and Northrop Grumman, HAWC is the first US scramjet-powered hypersonic missile to complete a free flight test in the 2020s.[219][220][122][126][221][96] DARPA's goals for the test, which were successfully met, were: "vehicle integration and release sequence, safe separation from the launch aircraft, booster ignition and boost, booster separation and engine ignition, and cruise".[122] HAWC is capable of sustained, powered maneuver in the atmosphere.[127]: minute 0:55  HAWC appears to depend on a rocket booster to accelerate to scramjet velocities operating in an oxygen-rich environment.[222][223] It is easier to put a seeker on a sub-sonic air-breathing vehicle.[224] In March 2022 a HAWC Scramjet was successfully tested in an air-launched flight.[128][129] On 18 July 2022 Raytheon announced another successful test of its Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) scramjet, in free flight.[122][225] MoHAWC is a follow-on to DARPA's HAWC project.[226]
  • United States Hypersonic Conventional Strike Weapon (HCSW - pronounced "hacksaw")[114] passed its critical design review (CDR) but this IDIQ (indefinite duration, indefinite quantity)[227] contract was terminated in favor of ARRW because twice as many ARRWs fit on a bomber.[228]
  • France ASN4G (air-launched, scramjet-powered, hypersonic cruise missile under development by MBDA France and the ONERA to succeed the ASMP)[229][230]
  • Soviet Union Kh-45 (cancelled)
  • Russia Zircon[231][232]
  • India Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle
  • India/Russia Brahmos-II
  • South Korea Hycore[147]

Glide vehicles

  • United States AGM-183A air launched rapid response weapon (ARRW, pronounced "arrow")[221][233][96][234] Telemetry data was successfully transmitted from ARRW —AGM-183A IMV-2 (Instrumented Measurement Vehicle) to Point Mugu ground stations, demonstrating the ability to accurately broadcast radio at hypersonic speeds;[235][236] however, ARRW's launch sequence was not completed.[83][237][238] Hundreds of ARRWs or other Hypersonic weapons are sought by the Air Force.[239] On 9 March 2022 Congress halved funding for ARRW and transferred the balance to ARRW's R&D account to allow for further testing, which puts the procurement contract at risk.[240] Production decision on ARRW was delayed for a year to complete flight testing.[241][242] On 14 May 2022 an ARRW flight test was completed for the first time,[243][244] followed by two others. The Air Force required 3 additional successful tests of an All-Up Round (AUR) before making a production decision.[245] The USAF intended to end the ARRW development program, as of 29 March 2023.[246][247][131][248][249] A B-52 flying out of Anderson AFB in Guam fired an ARRW; the AUR was tested in the Pacific on 17 March 2024.[250] No production decision was made in 2024.[225]
  • United States DARPA Tactical Boost Glide vehicle[251][252]

[253][254]

Flown

Aircraft

Glide vehicles

Spaceplanes

Cancelled

Aircraft

Glide vehicles

  • France VERAS (hypersonic glide vehicle program launched in 1965 and cancelled in 1971)[279][280]

Spaceplanes

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Ning describes a method for interrelating Reynolds number with Mach number.[10]
  2. ↑ "[N]on-nuclear capabilities may be able to complement nuclear forces in strategic deterrence plans"—The 2022 Nuclear Posture Review[27]: 33–62  as cited by Loren Thompson.[28] Thus non-nuclear hypersonics serve as proportionate deterrent layers in the defense strategy of the United States. [27][29][30]
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 According to Alex Hollings, as 21 March 2022 no nation has yet successfully fielded a scramjet-powered hypersonic cruise missile, including Russia's 3M22 Zircon.[32]: minute 10:14  However, tests of DARPA's Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) have now succeeded, using designs by two different vendors in September 2021, and March 2022 respectively.[33]
  4. ↑ In the CSIS report and discussion of Hypersonic missile defense, one of the panelists, Kelley M. Sayler (Congressional Research Service) summarized the situation (as of 7 February 2022) and quoted Michael Griffin's assessment that Hypersonic cruise missiles are 10 to 20 times dimmer than ballistic missiles.[166]: min 19:00–21:00 [167]
  5. ↑ Space development agency (SDA) provides the PWSA wide field of view (WFOV) sensors; Missile defense agency (MDA) provides the Hypersonic and Ballistic Tracking Space Sensor (HBTSS) sensors, (i.e., the Medium Field of View (MFOV) sensors). The WFOV sensors provide cueing data to the MFOV sensors, which are more sensitive and provide tipping data to the earth-based interceptors.[171] as cited in USNI News.[172] Two WFOV satellites were launched as part of the inititial Tranche 0.[173][174]

References

  1. ↑ Uppal, Rajesh. "Hypersonic Aircraft race for commercial and military" (in en-US). https://idstch.com/geopolitics/hypersonic-aircraft-race-for-commercial-and-military/. 
  2. ↑ Winter, Frank (3 August 2000). "V-2 missile". airandspace.si.edu. https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/missile-surface-surface-v-2-4. 
  3. ↑ "View of the Earth From the Freedom 7 Mercury Capsule - NASA" (in en-US). https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/view-of-earth-from-freedom-7-mercury-capsule/.  Altitude reached: 116 miles, velocity reached: 5134 mph, or Mach 8.5
  4. ↑ White, Robert. "Across the Hypersonic Divide". HistoryNet LLC. http://www.historynet.com/across-the-hypersonic-divide.htm. 
  5. ↑ "Hypersonic plane passes latest test". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). 22 March 2010. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/03/22/2852999.htm?section=justin. 
  6. ↑ Gibbs, Yvonne (13 August 2015). "NASA Dryden Fact Sheets - X-15 Hypersonic Research Program". http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-052-DFRC.html. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Eggers, Alfred J.; Julian, H.; Neice, Allen (10 December 1954). "A comparative analysis of the performance of long-range hypervelocity vehicles" NACA report 1382". pp. 1141–1160. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19930093743/downloads/19930093743.pdf. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 In, for example Waverider hypersonic weapons delivery, China has flown a Mach 5.5 vehicle for 400 seconds, at 30 km altitude, demonstrating large-angle deviations from a ballistic trajectory, as well as recovery of the payload. See Current test targets, such as "Zombie Pathfinder" (in en). 2016-12-16. https://www.army.mil/article/179788/u_s_army_announces_successful_test_of_u_s_army_zombie_pathfinder_rocket.  are not hypersonic. RAND (2017-09-28). Hypersonic Missile Nonproliferation. Retrieved 2025-07-12 – via YouTube. estimates that in less than a decade Hypersonic Missile proliferation will be in full swing.
  9. ↑ "MIT "Fluids" 1. Effects of Reynolds Number 2. Effects of Mach Number". https://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/fluids/Lectures/f05.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Ning, Andrew. "Matching Mach and Reynolds Number". http://flowlab.groups.et.byu.net/me412/hw/ReMmatching.pdf. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Macias, Amanda (2018-03-21). "Russia and China are 'aggressively developing' hypersonic weapons — here's what they are and why the US can't defend against them" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/21/hypersonic-weapons-what-they-are-and-why-us-cant-defend-against-them.html. 
  12. ↑ Keller, Jared (15 September 2020). "Watch the Air Force use a hypersonic bullet to blast a drone out of the sky". https://taskandpurpose.com/news/air-force-hypervelocity-projectile-test-video/. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Anderson (Jr.), John David; Bowden, Mary L. (2021) (in en). Introduction to Flight. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-264-36340-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=RhZCzgEACAAJ. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Darwent, B. deB. (January 1970). "Table of Bond Dissociation Energies in Simple Molecules BDE: bond dissociation enthalpy"]. https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/NSRDS/nbsnsrds31.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Clark, Jim (2013-10-03). "Bond Enthalpies" (in en). https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Energies_and_Potentials/Enthalpy/Bond_Enthalpies. 
  16. ↑ Tegler, Jan (4 Oct 2019). "Research at Hyper Speed: The Pentagon's Research Laboratories Are Working Flat Out to Develop Hypersonic Weapons Technology" (in en). https://issuu.com/faircountmedia/docs/defense-research-magazine/s/139231.  operating at 8,000 K (7,730 °C; 13,940 °F)
  17. ↑ Capaccio, Anthony (28 Mar 2023). "U.S. Hypersonic Missile Test Marred by In-Flight Data Loss". https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-28/lockheed-hypersonic-missile-test-marred-by-in-flight-data-loss?re_source=boa_related#xj4y7vzkg.  ARRW plagued by loss of telemetry data in the latest test
  18. ↑ "Mach Angle". Glenn Research Center, NASA. 6 April 2018. https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/machang.html. 
  19. ↑ "China Built a Hypersonic Generator That Could Power Unimaginable Weapons" (in en-US). 2023-02-06. https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a42778760/china-hypersonic-generator/. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Wang, Brian (2025-03-01). "Gamchanging Hypersonic Drones from Venus Aerospace and Hermeus" (in en-US). https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2025/03/gamchanging-hypersonic-drones-from-venus-aerospace-and-hermeus.html. 
  21. ↑ McCormick, Packy. "Astro Mechanica" (in en). https://www.notboring.co/p/astro-mechanica. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Blain, Loz (2022-02-09). ""Russia's Elon Musk" is developing hypersonic rocket cargo planes" (in en-US). https://newatlas.com/aircraft/destinus-hypersonic-aircraft/. 
  23. ↑ Fine, Camille. "The biggest plane in the world has wings longer than a football field. See its latest flight" (in en-US). https://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/airline-news/2023/01/20/worlds-largest-plane-hypersonic-vehicle-paul-allen/11091149002/.  The biggest plane in the world has wings longer than a football field. See its latest flight.
  24. ↑ "Hermeus Completes Hypersonic Engine Milestone" (in en-US). https://www.hermeus.com/press-release-tbcc-milestone. 
  25. ↑ Insinna, Valerie (2024-03-28). "Hermeus rolls out new uncrewed aircraft as company edges toward goal of hypersonic flight" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2024/03/hermeus-rolls-out-new-uncrewed-aircraft-as-company-edges-toward-goal-of-hypersonic-flight/. 
  26. ↑ "SDA Awards Contracts for the First Generation of the Tracking Layer – Space Development Agency". https://www.sda.mil/sda-awards-contracts-for-the-first-generation-of-the-tracking-layer/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Austin III, Lloyd (27 Oct 2022). "2022 National Defense Strategy of the United States, Nuclear Posture Review, and Missile Defense Review". https://media.defense.gov/2022/Oct/27/2003103845/-1/-1/1/2022-NATIONAL-DEFENSE-STRATEGY-NPR-MDR.PDF. 
  28. ↑ Thompson, Loren. "Ten Ways Hypersonic Weapons Can Strengthen Strategic Deterrence" (in en). https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2022/12/20/ten-ways-hypersonic-weapons-can-strengthen-strategic-deterrence/. 
  29. ↑ US Department of Defense (28 March 2022). "2022 Fact Sheet: 2022 National Defense Strategy 2 page sketch NDS"]. https://media.defense.gov/2022/Mar/28/2002964702/-1/-1/1/NDS-FACT-SHEET.PDF. 
  30. ↑ Kahl, Colin; US Department of Defense (November 2022). The 2022 National Defense Strategy: A conversation with Colin Kahl.
  31. ↑ "Hypersonic Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress". Congressional Research Service. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/R45811.pdf. 
  32. ↑ Hollings, Alex (21 Mar 2022). Don't believe the hype around Russia's hypersonic Kinzhal missile. Kinzhal does not use a scramjet.
  33. ↑ Hollings, Alex. "America may have just taken the lead in hypersonic cruise missile technology" (in en-US). https://www.sandboxx.us/blog/america-may-have-just-taken-the-lead-in-hypersonic-cruise-missile-technology/.  2 tests of Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC) using 2 different vendors
  34. ↑ Zastrow, Mark (2021-11-04). "How does China's hypersonic glide vehicle work?" (in en-US). https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/how-does-chinas-hypersonic-glide-vehicle-work/. 
  35. ↑ Russia and China are ahead of US in hypersonic missile technology. Here's why | CNN. 2022-05-31. Retrieved 2025-07-11 – via www.cnn.com.
  36. ↑ Insinna, Valerie (2022-06-02). "Lockheed's CEO wants to fund a hypersonic wind tunnel, but says DoD isn't buying in" (in en-US). http://breakingdefense.com/2022/06/lockheeds-ceo-wants-to-fund-a-hypersonic-wind-tunnel-but-says-dod-isnt-buying-in/. 
  37. ↑ Miller, Jeff Morganteen, Andrea (26 September 2019). "Hypersonic weapons are the center of a new arms race between China, the US and Russia". https://www.cnbc.com/2019/09/26/hypersonic-weapons-drive-arms-race-with-china-united-states-russia.html. 
  38. ↑ Carlson, Stephen (14 Nov 2018). "DARPA issues contract proposition for hypersonic missile defense - UPI.com" (in en). https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2018/11/14/DARPA-issues-contract-proposition-for-hypersonic-missile-defense/4311542213243/. 
  39. ↑ "China's hypersonic aircraft". https://www.scmp.com/video/china/2158510/china-tests-hypersonic-aircraft-starry-sky-2. 
  40. ↑ "China successfully tests first hypersonic aircraft that can carry nuclear warheads – Times of India". 6 August 2018. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/china/china-successfully-tests-first-hypersonic-aircraft/articleshow/65290241.cms. 
  41. ↑ Youtube clip XingKong-2 hypersonic aircraft (Starry Sky-2). YouTube. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  42. ↑ Liao, Holmes (8 October 2021). "China's Development of Hypersonic Missiles and Thought on Hypersonic Defense" (in en-US). Jamestown 21 (19). https://jamestown.org/program/chinas-development-of-hypersonic-missiles-and-thought-on-hypersonic-defense/. Retrieved 2025-07-12.  Critique of JF-12 hypersonic wind tunnel, as well as the newer JF-22 detonation-driven ultra-high-speed and high-enthalpy shock tunnel (used for XingKong). "PLA strategists fear that the U.S. may deploy hypersonic weapons on the first island chain and/or the second island chain, directly threatening China."
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Rogoway, Tyler (2021-10-16). "China Tested A Fractional Orbital Bombardment System That Uses A Hypersonic Glide Vehicle: Report" (in en-US). https://www.twz.com/42772/china-tested-a-fractional-orbital-bombardment-system-that-uses-a-hypersonic-glide-vehicle-report. 
  44. ↑ "China surprises U.S. with hypersonic missile test, FT reports". Reuters. 17 October 2021. https://www.reuters.com/world/china-surprises-us-with-hypersonic-missile-test-ft-reports-2021-10-17/. 
  45. ↑ Ritchie, Hannah (2021-10-18). "China denies testing a nuclear-capable hypersonic missile, says it was a spacecraft" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2021/10/18/china/china-hypersonic-missile-spacecraft-intl. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Hitchens, Theresa (19 October 2021). "After China's 'Hypersonic' Test, US Alarm And Many Unanswered Questions". https://breakingdefense.com/2021/10/questions-linger-over-chinas-reported-hypersonic-space-weapon-test/. 
  47. ↑ Trevithick, Joseph (18 October 2021). "China's Claim That Its Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Was A Spaceplane Test Doesn't Add Up (Updated)". https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/42779/chinas-claim-that-its-fractional-orbital-bombardment-system-was-a-spaceplane-test-doesnt-add-up. 
  48. ↑ Sevastopulo, Demetri (2021-10-20). "China conducted two hypersonic weapons tests this summer". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/c7139a23-1271-43ae-975b-9b632330130b. 
  49. ↑ Sanger, David E.; Broad, William J. (2021-10-27). "China's Weapon Tests Close to a 'Sputnik Moment,' U.S. General Says" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/27/us/politics/china-hypersonic-missile.html. 
  50. ↑ Yeo, Mike (2022-11-10). "China displays air-launched hypersonic missile at air show near Taiwan" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/battlefield-tech/2022/11/10/china-shows-off-air-launched-hypersonic-missile-at-airshow-near-taiwan/. 
  51. ↑ Kadam, Tanmay (2022-11-13). "China Unveils World's 1st Carrier-Based Hypersonic Anti-Ship Missile 'YJ-21' That Can 'Strike The Eagle'" (in en-US). https://www.eurasiantimes.com/china-finally-unveils-worlds-first-carrier-based-hypersonic/. 
  52. ↑ "Chinese AI reveals surprising tactic for winning hypersonic air battle" (in en). 2023-02-28. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3211730/chinese-ai-simulates-hypersonic-air-battle-offering-surprising-tactic-winning-mach-11-dogfight. 
  53. ↑ Ziezulewicz, Geoff (2023-04-18). "Pentagon: Yes, we are still lagging behind China's hypersonics" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/news/your-navy/2023/04/18/pentagon-yes-we-are-still-lagging-behind-chinas-hypersonics/. 
  54. ↑ Macias, Amanda (26 December 2018). "The Kremlin says it conducted another successful test of a hypersonic weapon". CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/26/the-kremlin-says-it-conducted-another-successful-test-of-a-hypersonic-weapon.html. 
  55. ↑ ABC News (26 December 2018). "Putin crows as he oversees Russian hypersonic weapons test" (in en-US). ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/beta-story-container/International/wireStory/russias-putin-oversees-test-hypersonic-weapon-60016274. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Putin Says 'Invulnerable' New Hypersonic Nuclear Missile Is Ready For Deployment" (in en). 2018-12-27. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/hypersonic-nuclear-missile-russia_n_5c248de8e4b08aaf7a8dbc40. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Macias, Amanda (2018-10-12). "Russia hits a snag in developing a hypersonic weapon – after Putin said it was already in production" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/12/russia-having-trouble-building-hypersonic-weapon-putin-hyped.html. 
  58. ↑ Gady, Franz-Stefan (14 November 2019). "Russia: Avangard Hypersonic Warhead to Enter Service in Coming Weeks" (in en-US). https://thediplomat.com/2019/11/russia-avangard-hypersonic-warhead-to-enter-service-in-coming-weeks/.  "The Russian Strategic Missile Force will receive the first two ICBMs fitted with the Avangard warhead in late November or early December." The Avangard HGV was codenamed Yu-71, under Project 4202. "In late November – early December, two UR-100N UTTKh missiles equipped with the hypersonic glide vehicles from the first regiment of Avangard systems will assume experimental combat duty in the Dombarovsky division of the Strategic Missile Force,"—Tass, 13 November. The "13th regiment will reportedly be the first unit to receive the two retrofitted SS-19 ICBMs. The regiment is part of the Dombarovskiy (Red Banner) missile division". Eventually 4 more SS-19s fitted with Avangard HGVs will join the 13th Regiment; a second regiment with six Avangard / SS-19s will be stood up by 2027.
  59. ↑ Isachenkov, Vladimir (2019-12-27). "New Russian weapon can travel 27 times the speed of sound" (in en). https://apnews.com/general-news-597e7f2b20b21af959e4c6983b255c37.  Avangard has been fielded to the Yasnensky Missile Division, a unit in the Orenburg Oblast
  60. ↑ Associated Press (2021-11-29). "Russian Navy test-fires hypersonic missile in the White Sea" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/training-sim/2021/11/29/russian-navy-test-fires-hypersonic-missile-in-the-white-sea/. 
  61. ↑ McDermott, Roger (2022-02-07). "The Role of Hypersonic Weapons in Russian Military Strategy" (in en). https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2022/02/07/the_role_of_hypersonic_weapons_in_russian_military_strategy_815512.html. 
  62. ↑ Said-Moorhouse, Lauren; Ravindran, Jeevan; Haq, Sana Noor; Wilkinson, Peter; Vogt, Adrienne; Alfonso III, Fernando (2022-02-19). "The latest on the Ukraine-Russia border crisis: Live updates" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-news-02-19-22-intl. 
  63. ↑ Page, Lewis (2024-02-13). "Russia's 'Zircon' hypersonic super weapon has failed in Ukraine. Putin is egg-faced again" (in en-GB). The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/02/13/russia-zircon-hypersonic-super-missile-ukraine-failure-kyiv/. 
  64. ↑ Freedberg, Jr, Sydney J. Freedberg (2018-08-22). "Army Warhead Is Key To Joint Hypersonics" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2018/08/army-warhead-is-key-to-joint-hypersonics/. 
  65. ↑ McLeary, Paul (2020-01-31). "SecNav Tells Fleet Hypersonic Competition Demands 'Sputnik Moment;' Glide Body Test Set" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2020/01/secnav-tells-fleet-hypersonic-competition-demands-sputnik-moment-glide-body-test-set/. 
  66. ↑ Kimmons, Sean (8 October 2019). "Joint hypersonic weapon tests to start next year". https://www.army.mil/article/222617/joint_hypersonic_weapon_tests_to_start_next_year. 
  67. ↑ Clark, Colin (2019-05-24). "Army Moves Out On Lasers, Hypersonics: Lt. Gen. Thurgood" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2019/05/army-moves-out-on-lasers-hypersonics-lt-gen-thurgood/. 
  68. ↑ Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. Freedberg (2020-02-28). "Army Ramps Up Funding For Laser Shield, Hypersonic Sword" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2020/02/army-ramps-up-funding-for-laser-shield-hypersonic-sword/. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Lacdan, Joe (24 October 2018). "The Army joins the Air Force, Navy in attempt to develop hypersonic weaponry". https://www.army.mil/article/212487/the_army_joins_the_air_force_navy_in_attempt_to_develop_hypersonic_weaponry. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Sayler, Kelley M.. "Congressional Research Service R45811 (11 July 2019) Hypersonic Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress Lists names for hypersonics programs"]. https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/6189872/Hypersonic-Weapons-Background-and-Issues-for.pdf. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. (2019-08-30). "Hypersonics: Army Awards $699M To Build First Missiles For A Combat Unit" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2019/08/hypersonics-army-awards-699m-to-build-first-missiles-for-a-combat-unit/.  (C-HGB); Lockheed: Long range hypersonic weapon (LRHW)
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  73. ↑ Nanda, Prakash (2022-11-06). "Hypersonic Hype? This Is Why US 'Trails' Russia, China & Even North Korea In Hypersonic Missile Development" (in en-US). https://www.eurasiantimes.com/why-is-the-us-still-unable-to-develop-hypersonic-weapons/. 
  74. ↑ Macias, Amanda (2018-08-14). "Lockheed Martin gets a second hypersonic weapons contract, this time for $480 million, as the US tries to keep pace with Russia and China" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/14/lockheed-martin-gets-480-million-hypersonics-contract-from-pentagon.html. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. Freedberg (2019-03-13). "Hypersonics Won't Repeat Mistakes Of F-35" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2019/03/hypersonics-wont-repeat-mistakes-of-f-35/. 
    • "Navy: Conventional Prompt Strike (CPS)"
    • "Army: Land-Based Hypersonic Missile"
    • "Air Force: HCSW and ARRW"
    • "DARPA & Air Force: Tactical Boost-Glide (TBG) and Hypersonic Air-breathing Weapon Concept (HAWC)"
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Macias, Amanda (8 August 2018a). "America's top nuclear commander: Russia and China can't be our friends if they're developing weapons we can't deter" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/08/us-nuclear-commander-russia-and-china-are-not-our-friends.html. 
  77. ↑ Stockton, Nick. "Rotating Detonation Engines Could Propel Hypersonic Flight" (in en-US). Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. https://www.wired.com/story/rotating-detonation-engine/. Retrieved 2025-07-11. 
  78. ↑ Clark, Colin (2021-10-28). "'Hundreds' Of China Hypersonic Tests Vs. 9 US; Hyten Says US Moves Too Slowly" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2021/10/hundreds-of-china-hypersonic-tests-vs-9-us-hyten-says-us-moves-too-slowly/. 
  79. ↑ Trevithick, Joseph (2018-09-06). "DARPA Starts Work On "Glide Breaker" Hypersonic Weapons Defense Project" (in en-US). https://www.twz.com/23398/darpa-starts-work-on-glide-breaker-hypersonic-weapons-defense-project. 
  80. ↑ "The US Wants to Intimidate China with Hypersonics, Once It Solves the Physics" (in en). 2020-01-13. https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2020/01/us-aims-intimidate-china-hypersonics-once-it-solves-physics/162408/. 
  81. ↑ Trevithick, Joseph (2019-08-06). "Air Force Reveals Tests Of Supposed Record-Setting Scramjet Engine From Northrop Grumman" (in en-US). https://www.twz.com/29307/air-force-reveals-tests-of-supposed-record-setting-scramjet-engine-from-northrop-grumman. 
  82. ↑ Hitchens, Theresa; Mehta, Aaron (24 September 2021). "As Air Force Signals Hypersonic Doubts, Key Senators Want To Go Faster". https://breakingdefense.com/2021/09/as-air-force-signals-hypersonic-doubts-key-senators-want-to-go-faster/. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 Insinna, Valerie (2021-12-20). "Air Force hypersonic weapon runs into trouble after a third failed test" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2021/12/air-force-hypersonic-weapon-runs-into-trouble-after-a-third-failed-test/. 
  84. ↑ Gregg, Aaron; Hax, Carolyn; Ables, Kelsey; Lee, Joyce; Sacks, Brianna; Davis, Aaron; Dance, Scott; Tran, Andrew et al. (2019-08-02). "In conversations with investors, defense firms double down on hypersonic weapons" (in en-US). The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/08/02/conversations-with-investors-defense-firms-double-down-hypersonic-weapons/.  As of August 2019, Lockheed reports $3.5 billion in hypersonics work, while Raytheon reports $1.6 billion; Boeing declined to give the value of its hypersonics awards.
  85. ↑ Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. (1 March 2018). "DoD Boosts Hypersonics 136 % In 2019: DARPA". https://breakingdefense.com/2018/03/dod-boosts-hypersonics-136-in-2019-darpa/. 
  86. ↑ Cutshaw, Jason (2018-09-19). "Secretary of the Navy visits AMC, SMDC" (in en). https://www.army.mil/article/211330/secretary_of_the_navy_visits_amc_smdc. 
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Harper, Jon (4 March 2020). "Pentagon to Spend Billions Mass-Producing Hypersonic Weapons". https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2020/3/4/pentagon-to-spend-billions-mass-producing-hypersonic-weapons.  "Aero shells that provide thermal protection for the high-speed platforms will be a key component of the systems"
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  89. ↑ Aylward, Mary Kate (2019-02-05). "Experiments in hyperspeed" (in en). https://www.army.mil/article/217024/experiments_in_hyperspeed.  more on Prompt Global Strike
  90. ↑ Eckstein, Megan (2017-11-03). "Navy Conducts Flight Test to Support Conventional Prompt Strike From Ohio-Class SSGNs" (in en-US). https://news.usni.org/2017/11/03/navy-conducts-flight-test-support-conventional-prompt-strike-ohio-class-boomers.  1st hypersonic glide vehicle test (Flight experiment 1)
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  92. ↑ "Long-range precision fires modernization a joint effort, Army tech leader says". 23 August 2018. https://www.army.mil/article/210198/long_range_precision_fires_modernization_a_joint_effort_army_tech_leader_says. 
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. (2020-03-20). "Hypersonics: Army, Navy Test Common Glide Body" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2020/03/hypersonics-army-navy-test-common-glide-body/.  "The U.S. Navy and U.S. Army jointly executed the launch of a common hypersonic glide body (C-HGB), which flew at hypersonic speed to a designated impact point."
  94. ↑ DoD (20 March 2020). "Department of Defense tests hypersonic glide body". https://www.army.mil/article/233873/department_of_defense_tests_hypersonic_glide_body.  "The C-HGB – when fully fielded – will comprise the weapon's conventional warhead, guidance system, cabling, and thermal protection shield." Also: comments from LTG L. Neill Thurgood RCCTO
  95. ↑ University Strategic Communications (2021-05-19). "New hypersonic facility accelerates UTSA as leader in aerospace projects" (in en). https://www.utsa.edu/today/2021/05/story/mach-7-wind-tunnel-completed.html.  At 15 m (49 ft) long and weighing more than 3,200 kg (7,100 lb), it operates at the UTSA Hypersonics Lab
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  97. ↑ Katz, Justin (2022-02-02). "Pentagon developing 'National Defense Science and Technology' strategy: Memo" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2022/02/pentagon-developing-national-defense-science-and-technology-strategy-memo/. 
  98. ↑ Vincent, Brandi (2022-02-04). "Pentagon Previews New Tech Strategy, Updates Priorities List" (in en). https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2022/02/defense-department-previews-new-future-facing-technology-aims/361598/. 
  99. ↑ Albon, Courtney; Gould, Joe (2022-02-06). "Top Pentagon officials met with industry executives about hypersonics. What comes next?" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/industry/2022/02/04/top-pentagon-officials-met-with-industry-executives-about-hypersonics-what-comes-next/. 
  100. ↑ Staff, Naval News (2022-11-01). "Hypersonic Missiles: Evolution or Revolution?" (in en-US). https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/11/hypersonic-missiles-evolution-or-revolution/. 
  101. ↑ Gary Sheftick "Army aligning modernization programs with other services". 12 February 2019. https://www.army.mil/article/217305/army_aligning_modernization_programs_with_other_services. 
  102. ↑ Freedberg, Jr., Sydney J. (2018-09-11). "Aiming The Army's Thousand-Mile Missiles" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2018/09/aiming-the-armys-thousand-mile-missiles/. 
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  104. ↑ Hitchens, Theresa (2020-02-24). "2021 Budget Will Fully Fund Next-Gen OPIR, Says Roper" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2020/02/2021-budget-will-finally-fully-fund-next-gen-opir-says-roper/.  Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) replacement: three satellites in Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO) and two satellites in a polar orbit
  105. ↑ Judson, Jen (2019-08-19). "US Missile Defense Agency boss reveals his goals, challenges on the job" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2019/08/19/us-missile-defense-agency-boss-reveals-his-goals-challenges-on-the-job/.  Increase the discrimination of the radars and other sensors. Use large aperture sensors. Use Space-based missile sensors. An SM-3 Block IIA missile test against ICBM is scheduled for 2020. Plan out the detection, control, and engagement; the sensors, the command-and-control, the fire control, and the weapons (the kill vehicles).
  106. ↑ Hitchens, Theresa (9 October 2020). "SDA Missile Tracking A 'Strategic Win' For L3Harris, SpaceX". https://breakingdefense.com/2020/10/sda-missile-tracking-a-strategic-win-for-l3harris-spacex/. 
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  108. ↑ Clark, Colin (19 June 2019a). "Raytheon, Northrop Will 'Soon' Fly Hypersonic Cruise Missile" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2019/06/raytheon-northrop-will-soon-fly-hypersonic-cruise-missile/.  New additive-process materials to build the combustor of a scramjet; potential integration among members of an intercommunicating swarm of hypersonics systems.
  109. ↑ Bugos, Shannon (29 September 2021). "Congress Shouldn't Rubber-Stamp Hypersonic Weapons". https://breakingdefense.com/2021/09/congress-shouldnt-rubber-stamp-hypersonic-weapons/. 
  110. ↑ Dangwal, Ashish (10 December 2021). "Hypersonic Missiles: US Draws Big Plan To Track, Intercept & Shoot-Down Chinese Super-Maneuverable Threats". https://eurasiantimes.com/hypersonic-missiles-us-draws-big-plan-to-engage-intercept-shoot-down-china/. 
  111. ↑ "Pentagon to TestFly New Hypersonic Weapon This Year". https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2020/3/2/pentagon-to-testfly-new-hypersonic-weapon-this-year. 
  112. ↑ Clark, Bryan (2020-04-21). "DoD Is Running the Wrong Way in the Hypersonics Race | RealClearDefense" (in en). https://www.realcleardefense.com/articles/2020/04/21/dod_is_running_the_wrong_way_in_the_hypersonics_race_115218-full.html.  230 kg (510 lb) payload; maneuverability at Mach 5 is an issue; possible red herring for funding
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  116. ↑ Osborn, Kris (12 August 2017). "Get Ready, Russia and China: America's Next Fighter Jet Will Dominate the Skies". http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/get-ready-russia-china-americas-next-fighter-jet-will-21876. 
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  118. ↑ Thompson, Loren. "Defense Against Hypersonic Attack Is Becoming The Biggest Military Challenge Of The Trump Era" (in en). https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2019/07/30/defense-against-hypersonic-attack-is-becoming-the-biggest-military-challenge-of-the-trump-era/. 
  119. ↑ McLeary, Paul (2019-12-18). "MDA Kickstarts New Way To Kill Hypersonic Missiles" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2019/12/mda-kickstarts-new-way-to-kill-hypersonic-missiles/. 
  120. ↑ Kenney, Caitlin M. (2021-10-22). "One of Four Boosters Fails in Rapid-Fire Hypersonic Tests" (in en). https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2021/10/one-four-boosters-fails-rapid-fire-hypersonic-tests/186303/. 
  121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 Liebermann, Oren (2021-10-21). "Latest US military hypersonic test fails | CNN Politics" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2021/10/21/politics/us-hypersonic-test-fails. 
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 122.3 122.4 Stone, Mike. "U.S. successfully flight-tests Raytheon hypersonic weapon -Pentagon" (in en). https://kfgo.com/2022/07/18/u-s-successfully-flight-tests-raytheon-hypersonic-weapon-pentagon-2/. 
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  127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 World'sTech "USAF Completes 1st Free Flight Test of HAWC Hypersonic Weapon...". https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAPjHjTraDY. 
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  129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 Hollings, Alex. "US successfully tests scramjet-powered hypersonic missile in secret - Sandboxx" (in en-US). https://www.sandboxx.us/blog/us-successfully-tests-scramjet-powered-hypersonic-missile-in-secret/.  "speeds just above Mach 5 at an altitude higher than 65,000 feet for more than 300 miles"
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  131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 Decker, Audrey (2023-03-28). "Failed Hypersonic Test Dims Air Force View of Lockheed Missile" (in en). https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2023/03/failed-hypersonic-test-dims-air-force-view-lockheed-missile/384530/Air Force R&D funding for ARRW and HACM tests is $150 million and $380 million, respectively. "ARRW and HACM are just two of the U.S. military's hypersonic efforts; in all, the Pentagon is requesting $11 billion for hypersonic R&D in 2024" 
  132. ↑ Rabie, Passant. "Watch as World's Largest Plane Releases Hypersonic Vehicle for Its First Powered Test Flight" (in en-US). Yahoo News. https://www.yahoo.com/news/watch-world-largest-plane-releases-164000420.html. 
  133. ↑ Stone, Mike (2024-03-11). "Hypersonic weapon startup Castelion has first prototype missile test" (in en-US). https://www.yahoo.com/news/hypersonic-weapon-startup-castelion-first-170106559.html. 
  134. ↑ Sydney Freedberg, Jr. Katz, Justin (24 March 2021). "OSD Writes Hypersonic Flight Test Guidelines". https://breakingdefense.com/2021/03/osd-writes-hypersonic-flight-test-guidelines/. 
  135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 Hitchens, Theresa (2021-03-22). "DoD Needs To Sharpen Hypersonics Oversight: GAO" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2021/03/dod-needs-to-sharpen-hypersonics-oversight-gao/. 
  136. ↑ Strout, Nathan (2020-10-06). "SpaceX, L3 to provide hypersonic tracking satellites for Space Development Agency" (in en). https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/space/2020/10/05/space-development-agency-orders-8-hypersonic-weapon-tracking-satellites/. 
  137. ↑ Albon, Courtney (2022-10-27). "Pentagon's Shyu, LaPlante push to get critical tech into production" (in en). https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/2022/10/27/pentagons-shyu-laplante-push-to-get-critical-tech-into-production/.  Senators may halve request for Rapid Defense Experimentation Reserve funding without transition plan (RDER funding for DoD R&E, A&S projects)
  138. ↑ Gould, Joe (12 October 2021). "'Affordable' hypersonics, small business and sustainment lead DoD tech chief's priorities". https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/ausa/2021/10/12/affordable-hypersonics-small-business-and-sustainment-lead-dod-tech-chiefs-priorities/. 
  139. ↑ Nurkin, Tate (2022-02-09). "To catch China and Russia in hypersonic race, US must embrace risk now" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2022/02/to-catch-china-and-russia-in-hypersonic-race-us-must-embrace-risk-now/. 
  140. ↑ Albon, Courtney (2022-11-08). "Pentagon test bed to ramp up development of hypersonics" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2022/11/08/pentagon-test-bed-to-ramp-up-development-of-hypersonics/. 
  141. ↑ Albon, Courtney (2023-01-06). "Pentagon racing to restore US superiority in hypersonics" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/battlefield-tech/2023/01/06/pentagon-racing-to-restore-us-superiority-in-hypersonics/Test Resource Management Center (TRMC) SkyRange seeks to convert 24 Global Hawks for testing hypersonics. 
  142. ↑ "Iran says it has built hypersonic ballistic missile -Tasnim" (in en). Reuters. 2022-11-10. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iran-says-it-has-built-hypersonic-ballistic-missile-tasnim-2022-11-10/. 
  143. ↑ "خبرگزاری فارس - سردار حاجی‌زاده: "کروز پاوه" در سبد موشکی سپاه قرار گرفت/ سرعت هایپرسونیک ایرانی ۱۳ ماخ است". 24 February 2023. https://www.farsnews.ir/news/14011205000663/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87-%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B2-%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C-%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%87-%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D8%AA-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B9%D8%AA. 
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  146. ↑ World Affairs (2021-10-22). India Is One Of The Few Countries Working On Hypersonic Missiles : U.S. Congressional report. Retrieved 2025-07-11 – via YouTube.
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  152. ↑ Tucker, Patrick (2023-09-21). "Ukraine downed a hypersonic missile with a Patriot. What that says about the future of weapons" (in en). https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2023/09/what-ukraines-shoot-down-hypersonic-missile-patriot-says-about-future-weapons/390498/. 
  153. ↑ RAND (2017-09-28). Hypersonic Missile Nonproliferation. Retrieved 2025-07-11 – via YouTube.
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  156. ↑ Government Accountability Office (March 2021). "DOD Should Clarify Roles and Responsibilities to Ensure Coordination across Development Efforts". https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-21-378.pdf. 
  157. ↑ Givetash, Linda (2019-02-02). "Putin: Russia also suspending key nuke treaty in response to U.S." (in en). https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/putin-says-russia-also-suspending-key-nuclear-arms-treaty-response-n966146. 
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  221. ↑ 221.0 221.1 "Air Force tests hypersonic weapon aboard B-52 for first time". https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2019/06/14/Air-Force-tests-hypersonic-weapon-aboard-B-52-for-first-time/3411560517628/. 
  222. ↑ Trevithick, Joseph (2019-06-18). "Northrop And Raytheon Have Been Secretly Working On Scramjet Powered Hypersonic Missile" (in en-US). https://www.twz.com/28580/northrop-and-raytheon-have-been-secretly-working-on-scamjet-powered-hypersonic-missile. 
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  224. ↑ Freedberg, Sydney J. Jr. (3 March 2020). "Hypersonic Missiles: Plethora Of Boost-Glide & Cruise". https://breakingdefense.com/2020/03/hypersonic-missiles-plethora-of-boost-glide-cruise/. 
  225. ↑ 225.0 225.1 Decker, Audrey (2023-03-14). "Air Force Won't Buy Hypersonic Missiles in 2024, Official Says" (in en). https://www.defenseone.com/policy/2023/03/air-force-wont-buy-hypersonic-missiles-2024/383987/. 
  226. ↑ Albon, Courtney (2022-05-10). "DARPA seeks funding for next phase of hypersonic weapon" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/battlefield-tech/2022/05/09/darpa-maturing-scramjet-powered-hypersonic-weapon-concept-through-follow-on-program/. 
  227. ↑ "Hypersonic Conventional Strike Weapon (HCSW)". https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/hcsw.htm. 
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  229. ↑ 229.0 229.1 "MBDA en dit un peu plus sur l'ASN4G, le futur missile de la composante aéroportée de la dissuasion française" (in fr). 12 March 2023. https://www.opex360.com/2023/03/12/mbda-en-dit-un-peu-plus-sur-lasn4g-le-futur-missile-de-la-composante-aeroportee-de-la-dissuasion-francaise/. 
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  231. ↑ Episkopos, Mark (2021-08-26). "Bad News: Russia's Tsirkon Hypersonic Missiles Are Coming 2025" (in en-US). https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/bad-news-russias-tsirkon-hypersonic-missiles-are-coming-2025-192495/3M22 missile (the Tsirkon hypersonic missile) fielded to ships and submarines 
  232. ↑ "Russia test fires submarine-launched hypersonic Tsirkon missile for first time". Reuters. https://news.trust.org/item/20211004064956-qrwkc. 
  233. ↑ Martin, Chris (2019-12-17). "Lockheed awards $81.5M contract for hypersonic missile motor" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/industry/techwatch/2019/12/17/lockheed-awards-815m-contract-for-hypersonic-missile-motor/. 
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  238. ↑ D'Urso, Stefano "First Flight Test Of Hypersonic AGM-183A ARRW (Air-launched Rapid Response Weapon) Fails, Again.". 4 August 2021. https://theaviationist.com/2021/08/04/arrw-test-fails-again/. 
  239. ↑ McLeary, Paul (24 April 2020). "Hypersonics: DoD Wants 'Hundreds of Weapons' ASAP". https://breakingdefense.com/2020/04/hypersonics-dod-wants-hundreds-of-weapons-asap/. 
  240. ↑ Insinna, Valerie (2022-03-09). "Air Force can't buy its first hypersonic ARRW as planned, following budget cut" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2022/03/air-force-cant-buy-its-first-hypersonic-arrw-as-planned-following-budget-cut/. 
  241. ↑ Losey, Stephen (2022-07-17). "US Air Force weighing future of key hypersonic program after two successful tests" (in en). https://www.defensenews.com/air/2022/07/17/air-force-still-weighing-future-of-key-hypersonic-program/. 
  242. ↑ Liebermann, Oren (2022-04-07). "Air Force delays hypersonic missile program after flight test 'anomalies' | CNN Politics" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2022/04/07/politics/air-force-hypersonic-missile-program-delay. 
  243. ↑ Liebermann, Oren (2022-05-17). "US Air Force tests troubled hypersonic missile | CNN Politics" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/16/politics/us-air-force-hypersonic-missile-test. 
  244. ↑ Insinna, Valerie (2022-12-12). "Air Force successfully tests first fully-operational air-launched hypersonic missile" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2022/12/air-force-successfully-tests-first-fully-operational-air-launched-hypersonic-missile/AGM-183A ARRW's 1st all-up round was successfully tested, completing its flight path and successfully detonating, after 3 consecutive test failures (Apr, Jul, and Dec 2021), and 2 successful tests of the booster in May and July 2022 
  245. ↑ Tirpak, John (2022-12-14). "Three More Successful All-Up ARRW Tests Required Before Production Decision" (in en-US). https://www.airandspaceforces.com/three-more-successful-all-up-arrw-tests-required-before-production-decision/Air Force: "Three more 'all-up' flight tests of the AGM-183 Air-launched Rapid Response Weapon (ARRW) must succeed". 
  246. ↑ "US Air Force Plans to End Lockheed Hypersonic Weapon Program". Bloomberg. 29 March 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-29/us-air-force-plans-to-end-lockheed-hypersonic-weapon-program#xj4y7vzkg. 
  247. ↑ Marrow, Michael (2023-03-24). "Air Force mum on whether latest ARRW hypersonic test was successful" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2023/03/air-force-mum-on-whether-latest-arrw-hypersonic-test-was-successful/. 
  248. ↑ Marrow, Michael (2023-08-22). "Air Force won't say whether newest ARRW test succeeded, echoing past failure" (in en-US). https://breakingdefense.com/2023/08/air-force-wont-say-whether-newest-arrw-test-succeeded-echoing-past-failure/An end-to-end test of a Middle Tier Acquisition (MTA) from Lockheed 
  249. ↑ Losey, Stephen (2023-08-21). "US Air Force fires hypersonic ARRW in first test since March failure" (in en). https://www.c4isrnet.com/battlefield-tech/space/2023/08/21/us-air-force-fires-arrw-hypersonic-in-first-test-since-march-failure/. 
  250. ↑ Lendon, Brad (2024-03-21). "US tests hypersonic missile in Pacific as it aims to keep up with China and Russia" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/21/asia/us-tests-hypersonic-missile-pacific-guam-intl-hnk-ml. 
  251. ↑ Goure, Dan (2019-06-20). "Hypersonic Weapons Are Almost Here (And They Will Change War Forever)" (in en-US). https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/hypersonic-weapons-are-almost-here-and-they-will-change-war-forever-63432/. 
  252. ↑ Trimble, Steve (29 July 2019). "Raytheon Tactical Boost Glide Baseline Review Completed | Aviation Week Network". https://aviationweek.com/defense/raytheon-tactical-boost-glide-baseline-review-completed. 
  253. ↑ Hughes, Robin (5 August 2019). "Raytheon, DARPA complete TBG baseline design review | Jane's 360". https://www.janes.com/article/90278/raytheon-darpa-complete-tbg-baseline-design-review. 
  254. ↑ Erbland, Peter; Stults, Joshua. "Tactical Boost Glide". https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/tactical-boost-glide. 
  255. ↑ "Le ministère des Armées va financer un second démonstrateur de planeur hypersonique, le VMaX-2" (in fr). Opex 360. 4 May 2023. https://www.opex360.com/2023/05/04/le-ministere-des-armees-va-financer-un-second-demonstrateur-de-planeur-hypersonique-le-vmax-2/. 
  256. ↑ Gibbs, Yvonne (13 August 2015). "NASA Dryden Fact Sheets – X-15 Hypersonic Research Program". http://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-052-DFRC.html. 
  257. ↑ "Lockheed X-17". http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/app1/x-17.html. 
  258. ↑ "X-51A Waverider". https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104467/x-51a-waverider/. 
  259. ↑ Peri, Dinakar (12 June 2019). "DRDO conducts maiden test of hypersonic technology demonstrator". The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/drdo-conducts-maiden-test-of-hypersonic-technology-demonstrator/article27890922.ece. 
  260. ↑ "Avangard (Hypersonic Glide Vehicle) – Missile Defense Advocacy Alliance". https://missiledefenseadvocacy.org/missile-threat-and-proliferation/todays-missile-threat/russia/avangard-hypersonic-glide-vehicle/. 
  261. ↑ Salerno-Garthwaite, Andrew (28 June 2023). "France debuts hypersonic glide weapon in first VMaX test flight". https://www.airforce-technology.com/news/france-debuts-hypersonic-glide-weapon-in-first-vmax-test-flight/. 
  262. ↑ Vavasseur, Xavier (27 June 2023). "France Conducts First VMaX Hypersonic Glide Vehicle Test". https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/06/france-conducts-first-vmax-hypersonic-glide-vehicle-test/. 
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  264. ↑ "La France a testé le planeur hypersonique VMAX d'Ariane Group". 27 June 2023. https://www.ouest-france.fr/politique/defense/la-france-a-teste-le-planeur-hypersonique-vmax-dariane-group-e1f98112-14be-11ee-ae57-25b1d1d54a03. 
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  266. ↑ Howell, Elizabeth (21 April 2015). "Buran: The Soviet Space Shuttle". https://www.space.com/29159-buran-soviet-shuttle.html. 
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  268. ↑ Ba (Nyse) (1 January 2020). "Autonomous Systems – X-37B". Boeing. https://www.boeing.com/defense/autonomous-systems/x37b/index.page. 
  269. ↑ "Project 863-706 Shenlong ("Divine Dragon")". https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/china/shenlong.htm. 
  270. ↑ "IXV – Intermediate Experimental Vehicle – Spacecraft & Satellites". https://spaceflight101.com/spacecraft/ixv-intermediate-experimental-vehicle/. 
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  272. ↑ "The Martin Marietta X-23 Prime". https://www.456fis.org/MARTIN_MARIETTA_X-23A_prime.htm. 
  273. ↑ "Asset". http://www.astronautix.com/a/asset.html. 
  274. ↑ "JAXA | Hypersonic Flight Experiment "HYFLEX"". https://global.jaxa.jp/projects/rockets/hyflex/. 
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  278. ↑ "Tu-2000". http://www.astronautix.com/t/tu-2000.html. 
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Further reading

  • David Wright and Cameron Tracy, "Over-hyped: Physics dictates that hypersonic weapons cannot live up to the grand promises made on their behalf", Scientific American, vol. 325, no. 2 (August 2021), pp. 64–71. Quote from p. 71: "Failure to fully assess [the potential benefits and costs of hypersonic weapons] is a recipe for wasteful spending and increased global risk."
Library resources about
Hypersonic flight



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