Physics:Nuclear close calls

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Short description: List of incidents which could have led to a nuclear exchange
Close-Calls-Nuclear-Weapons-Timeline-1.png

A nuclear close call is an incident that might have led to at least one unintended nuclear detonation or explosion, but did not. These incidents typically involve a perceived imminent threat to a nuclear-armed country which could lead to retaliatory strikes against the perceived aggressor. The damage caused by international nuclear exchange is not necessarily limited to the participating countries, as the hypothesized rapid climate change associated with even small-scale regional nuclear war could threaten food production worldwide—a scenario known as nuclear famine.[1] There have also been a number of accidents involving nuclear weapons, such as crashes of nuclear armed aircraft.

Despite a reduction in global nuclear tensions and major nuclear arms reductions after the end of the Cold War following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, estimated nuclear warhead stockpiles total roughly 15,000 worldwide, with the United States and Russia holding 90% of the total.[2]

Though exact details on many nuclear close calls are hard to come by, the analysis of particular cases has highlighted the importance of a variety of factors in preventing accidents. At an international level, this includes the importance of context and outside mediation; at the national level, effectiveness in government communications, and involvement of key decision-makers; and, at the individual level, the decisive role of individuals in following intuition and prudent decision-making, often in violation of protocol.[3]

1950s

5 November 1956

During the Suez Crisis, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) received a number of simultaneous reports, including unidentified aircraft over Turkey, Soviet MiG-15 fighters over Syria, a downed British Canberra medium bomber, and unexpected maneuvers by the Soviet Black Sea Fleet through the Dardanelles that appeared to signal a Soviet offensive. Considering previous Soviet threats to use conventional missiles against France and the United Kingdom , U.S. forces believed these events could trigger a NATO nuclear strike against the Soviet Union. In fact, all reports of Soviet action turned out to be erroneous, misinterpreted, or exaggerated. The perceived threat was due to a coincidental combination of events, including a wedge of swans over Turkey, a fighter escort for Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli returning from Moscow, a British bomber brought down by mechanical issues, and scheduled exercises of the Soviet fleet.[4]

27 May 1957

A B-36 accidentally dropped a bomb just south of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Due to safety measures the plutonium core was not mounted to the bomb at the time but rather stored elsewhere in the plane, preventing a nuclear detonation. The conventional explosives created a 7.6m wide crater on impact.

11 March 1958

A bomb was mistakenly dropped by a U.S. Air Force Boeing B-47E-LM Stratojet near Savannah, Georgia, when a man in the bomb bay area grabbed the emergency release pin by accident. Similar to the 1957 incident, safety precautions meant that the plutonium was not mounted to the bomb but rather stored elsewhere on the plane at the time.

August - December 1958

U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter characterized the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis as "the first serious nuclear crisis".[5] In this conflict, the PRC shelled the islands of Kinmen (Quemoy) and the Matsu Islands along the east coast of mainland China (in the Taiwan Strait) to "liberate" Taiwan from the Chinese Nationalist Party, also known as the Kuomintang (KMT); and to probe the extent of the United States defense of Taiwan's territory. A naval battle also took place around Dongding Island when the ROC Navy repelled an attempted amphibious landing by the PRC Navy.[citation needed]

1960s

5 October 1960

Radar equipment in Thule, Greenland, mistakenly interpreted a moonrise over Norway as a large-scale Soviet missile launch. Upon receiving a report of the supposed attack, NORAD went on high alert. However, doubts about the authenticity of the attack arose due to the presence of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in New York City as head of the USSR's United Nations delegation.[6][7][8]

24 January 1961

A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two 3–4-megaton Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air near Goldsboro, North Carolina, dropping its nuclear payload in the process.[9] The pilot in command, Walter Scott Tulloch, ordered the crew to eject at 9,000 feet (2,700 m). Five crewmen successfully ejected or bailed out of the aircraft and landed safely, another ejected but did not survive the landing, and two died in the crash.[10]

Information declassified in 2013 showed that "only a single switch prevented the ... bomb from detonating and spreading fire and destruction over a wide area."[11] An expert evaluation written on 22 October 1969 by Parker F. Jones, the supervisor of the nuclear weapons safety department at Sandia National Laboratories, reported that "one simple, dynamo-technology, low voltage switch stood between the United States and a major catastrophe", and that it "seems credible" that a short circuit in the Arm line during a mid-air breakup of the aircraft "could" have resulted in a nuclear explosion.[12]

14 March 1961

A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two nuclear weapons experienced a catastrophic decompression, eventually forcing the crew to eject. The crewless plane crashed 15 miles west of Yuba City, California. The bombs did not detonate due to safety features.

24 November 1961

Staff at the Strategic Air Command Headquarters (SAC HQ) simultaneously lost contact with NORAD and multiple Ballistic Missile Early Warning System sites. Since these communication lines were designed to be redundant and independent from one another, the communications failure was interpreted as either a very unlikely coincidence or a coordinated attack. SAC HQ prepared the entire ready force for takeoff before already-overhead aircraft confirmed that there did not appear to be an attack. It was later found that the failure of a single relay station in Colorado was the sole cause of the communications problem.[6]

25 October 1962

During the Cuban Missile Crisis, US military planners expected that sabotage operations might precede any nuclear first strike by the Soviet Union. Around midnight on 25 October 1962, a guard at the Duluth Sector Direction Center saw a figure climbing the security fence. He shot at it and activated the sabotage alarm, which automatically set off similar alarms at other bases in the region. At Volk Field in Wisconsin, a faulty alarm system caused the klaxon to sound instead, which ordered Air Defense Command (ADC) nuclear-armed F-106A interceptors into the air. The pilots had been told there would be no practice alert drills and, according to political scientist Scott D. Sagan, "fully believed that a nuclear war was starting".[13] Before the planes were able to take off, the base commander contacted Duluth and learned of the error. An officer in the command center drove his car onto the runway, flashing his lights and signaling to the aircraft to stop. The intruder was discovered to be a bear.[13][14]

Sagan writes that the incident raised the dangerous possibility of an ADC interceptor accidentally shooting down a Strategic Air Command (SAC) bomber.[13] Interceptor crews had not been given full information by SAC of plans to move bombers to dispersal bases (such as Volk Field) or the classified routes flown by bombers on continuous alert as part of Operation Chrome Dome. Declassified ADC documents later revealed that "the incident led to changes in the alert Klaxon system [...] to prevent a recurrence".[13]

27 October 1962

At the height of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Soviet patrol submarine B-59 almost launched a nuclear-armed torpedo while under harassment by American naval forces. One of several vessels surrounded by American destroyers near Cuba, B-59 dove to avoid detection and was unable to communicate with Moscow for a number of days.[15] USS Beale began dropping practice depth charges to signal B-59 to surface; however the captain of the Soviet submarine and its zampolit took these to be real depth charges.[16] With low batteries affecting the submarine's life support systems and unable to make contact with Moscow, the commander of B-59 feared that war had already begun and ordered the use of a 10-kiloton nuclear torpedo against the American fleet. The zampolit agreed, but the chief of staff of the flotilla (second in command of the flotilla) Vasily Arkhipov refused permission to launch. He convinced the captain to calm down, surface, and make contact with Moscow for new orders.[17][18]

On the same day, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba, and another U-2 flown by United States Air Force Captain Charles Maultsby from Eielson Air Force Base , Alaska, strayed 300 miles (480 km) into Soviet airspace. Despite orders to avoid Soviet airspace by at least 100 miles (160 km), a navigational error caused by the aurora borealis took the U-2 over the Chukotka Peninsula, causing Soviet MiG interceptors to scramble and pursue the aircraft.[4][19][20] American F-102A interceptors armed with GAR-11 Falcon nuclear air-to-air missiles (each with a 0.25 kiloton yield) were then scrambled to escort the U-2 into friendly airspace.[21] Individual pilots were capable of arming and launching their missiles. The incident remained secret for many years.[20]

28 October 1962

Further information: United States nuclear weapons in Japan § Nuclear weapons accidents

According to a technician who served there, a mistaken order was issued by Kadena Air Base in Okinawa to nuclear missile sites in Okinawa to launch all their nuclear missiles. None were launched. A team responsible for four missiles at Bolo Airfield in Yomitan reported that the order's codes were in order, but the local officer in charge did not trust the order, partly because only one of their four missiles was targeted on Russia, and he saw no logic why missiles would be launched against China too, and because readiness was at DEFCON 2, not DEFCON 1.[22] Others serving there have called the story into question.[23]

9 November 1965

The Command Center of the Office of Emergency Planning went on full alert after a massive power outage in the northeastern United States. Several nuclear bomb detectors—used to distinguish between regular power outages and power outages caused by a nuclear blast—near major U.S. cities malfunctioned due to circuit errors, creating the illusion of a nuclear attack.[4]

5 December 1965

During a training exercise in the sea off Japan, a nuclear armed jet fell off the side of an aircraft carrier. The jet, pilot and weapon were not recovered.

17 January 1966

A B-52G bomber and KC-135 tanker crashed over the Mediterranean. The bomber was carrying nuclear weapons at the time. While the bombs did not fully detonate, they did contaminate the area with radioactive material.

1966 (likely)

In the early days of the French Strategic Air Forces Command , electrical transmissions were disrupted due to a thunderstorm, causing a wartime takeoff order to be displayed. The French Air Force launched a Mirage IV with an AN-11 atomic bomb. The crew was called back by radio, but did not respond, as required by procedure. When they reached their refueling zone, they were unable to find the supply plane, forcing them to abort their mission, turn back, and land.[24]

23 May 1967

A powerful solar flare accompanied by a coronal mass ejection interfered with multiple NORAD radars over the Northern Hemisphere. These radars included three Ballistic Missile Early Warning Systems (BMEWS) that had been upgraded, and only resumed operation 8 days prior to the flare.[25] This interference was initially interpreted as intentional jamming of the radars by the Soviets, thus an act of war. A nuclear bomber counter-strike was nearly launched by the United States.[26] The Strategic Air Command had prepared to launch fighters before NORAD alerted them of the solar flare.

21 January 1968

A fire broke out on a nuclear armed bomber just off Greenland, and the plane crashed into the sea without causing a detonation.

15 April 1969

After the 1969 EC-121 shootdown incident, F-4 Phantom fighter jets at Kunsan Air Base were ordered to load B61 nuclear bombs and began planning and preparations for a nuclear strike against the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).[27] The strike was to include the airfield from which the North Koreans had attacked EC-121.[28] After a few hours, the order to stand down was given. The jets never took off. Reportedly, President Richard Nixon was drunk when he gave the order for a nuclear attack against the DPRK.[29] The order to stand down was given on the advice of Secretary of State Henry Kissinger.

1970s

October 1973

During the Yom Kippur War, Israeli officials panicked that the Arab invasion force would overrun Israel after the Syrian Army nearly achieved a breakout in the Golan Heights, and the U.S. government rebuffed Israel's request for an emergency airlift. According to a former CIA official, General Moshe Dayan requested and received authorization from Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir to arm 13 Jericho missiles and 8 F-4 Phantom II fighter jets with nuclear warheads. The missile launchers were located at Sdot Micha Airbase, while the fighter jets were placed on 24-hour notice at Tel Nof Airbase. The missiles were said to be aimed at the Arab military headquarters in Cairo and Damascus.[4]

The United States discovered Israel's nuclear deployment after a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft spotted the missiles, and it began an airlift the same day. After the U.N. Security Council imposed a ceasefire, conflict resumed when the Israel Defense Force moved to encircle the Egyptian Third Army. According to former U.S. State Department officials, General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev threatened to deploy the Soviet Airborne Forces against Israeli forces, and the U.S. Armed Forces were placed at DEFCON 3. Israel also redeployed its nuclear weapons. While DEFCON 3 was still in effect, mechanics repairing the alarm system at Kincheloe Air Force Base in Michigan accidentally activated it and nearly scrambled the B-52 bombers at the base before the duty officer declared a false alarm.[4] The crisis finally ended when Prime Minister Meir halted all military action.[30] Declassified Israeli documents have not confirmed these allegations directly, but have confirmed that Israel was willing to use "drastic means" to win the war.[31]

9 November 1979

Computer errors at the NORAD headquarters in Peterson Air Force Base , the Strategic Air Command command post in Offutt Air Force Base , the National Military Command Center in the Pentagon, and the Alternate National Military Command Center in the Raven Rock Mountain Complex led to alarm and full preparation for a nonexistent large-scale Soviet attack.[4][6] NORAD notified national security advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski that the Soviet Union had launched 250 ballistic missiles with a trajectory for the United States, stating that a decision to retaliate would need to be made by the president within 3 to 7 minutes. NORAD computers then placed the number of incoming missiles at 2,200.[32] Strategic Air Command was notified, and nuclear bombers prepared for takeoff. Within six to seven minutes of the initial response, PAVE PAWS satellite and radar systems were able to confirm that the attack was a false alarm.[4][5][33]

Congress quickly learned of the incident because Senator Charles H. Percy was present at the NORAD headquarters during the panic. A General Accounting Office investigation found that a training scenario was inadvertently loaded into an operational computer in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex.[4] Commenting on the incident, U.S. State Department adviser Marshall Shulman stated that "false alerts of this kind are not a rare occurrence. There is a complacency about handling them that disturbs me."[32] Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev composed a letter to U.S. President Jimmy Carter that the false alarm was "fraught with a tremendous danger" and "I think you will agree with me that there should be no errors in such matters."[34] In the months following the incident there were three more false alarms at NORAD, two of them caused by faulty computer chips.[6] One of them forced the National Emergency Airborne Command Post to taxi into position at Andrews Air Force Base .[34]

1980s

15 March 1980

A Soviet submarine near the Kuril Islands launched four missiles as part of a training exercise. American early warning sensors determined one of the four to be aimed towards the United States. In response, the United States convened officials for a threat assessment conference, at which point it was determined to not be a threat and the situation was resolved.[6]

18-19 September 1980

An explosion in Arkansas ripped the doors off a silo and launched part of a nuclear missile out of the structure. The warhead landed 30m away, but safety features prevented either a detonation or release of radioactive material. The incident caused one death and 21 injuries, and sparked a congressional inquiry.[35]

26 September 1983

Main page: 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident

Several weeks after the downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 over Soviet airspace, a satellite early-warning system near Moscow reported the launch of one American Minuteman ICBM. Soon after, it reported that five missiles had been launched. Convinced that a real American offensive would involve many more missiles, Lieutenant Colonel Stanislav Petrov of the Air Defense Forces refused to acknowledge the threat as legitimate and continued to convince his superiors that it was a false alarm until this could be confirmed by ground radar.[5][36][37][38][39][40][41]

7 to 11 November 1983

Able Archer 83 was a command post exercise carried out by NATO military forces and political leaders between 7 and 11 November 1983.[42] The exercise simulated a Soviet conventional attack on European NATO forces 3 days before the start of the exercise (D-3), transitioning to a large scale chemical war (D-1) and on day 1 (D+1) of the exercise, NATO forces sought political guidance on the use of nuclear weapons to stem the Soviet advance which was approved by political leaders. NATO then began simulating preparations for a transition to nuclear war.[43]

These simulations included 170 radio-silent flights to air lift 19,000 US troops to Europe, regularly shifting military commands to avoid nuclear attack, the use of new nuclear weapon release procedures, the use of nuclear Command, Control, and Communications (C3) networks for passing nuclear orders, the moving of NATO forces in Europe through each of the alert phases from DEFCON 5 to DEFCON 1, and the participation of political leaders like Margaret Thatcher, Helmut Kohl and Ronald Reagan.[44]

The issue was worsened by leaders referring to B-52 sorties as "nuclear strikes",[44] by the increased use of encrypted diplomatic channels between the US and UK,[45] and by the nuclear attack false alarm in September.

In response, Soviet nuclear capable aircraft were fueled and armed ready to launch on the runway, and ICBMs were brought up to alert. Soviet leaders believed the exercise was a ruse to cover NATO preparations for a nuclear first strike and frantically sent a telegram to its residencies seeking information on NATO preparations for an attack. The exercise closely aligned with Soviet timeline estimations that a NATO first strike would take 7 to 10 days to execute from the political decision being made.[46][47]

Soviet forces stood down after 11 November when the exercise ended and NATO was not aware of the complete Soviet response until British intelligence asset Oleg Gordievsky passed on the information.[48]

1990s

1991

During the Persian Gulf War, Ba'athist Iraq launched Scud missiles at Saudi Arabia and Israel and possessed a large cache of weapons of mass destruction. This, along with Saddam Hussein's previous threat to "burn half of Israel" with chemical weapons, led to fears that Saddam Hussein would order the use of the chemical weapons against the U.S.-led coalition or against Israel (see Iraq–Israel relations#Until the 2003 Iraq War).[49][50] Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir and Israeli Air Force Commander-in-Chief Avihu Ben-Nun both warned that an Iraqi chemical attack would trigger "massive retaliation", implying that Israel would retaliate with nuclear weapons. At the same time U.S. Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher all emphasized that the use of WMD against Coalition forces would lead to a nuclear attack on Iraq.[50]

U.S. Secretary of State James Baker directly warned his counterpart Tariq Aziz that the United States had "the means to exact vengeance" in the event of an Iraqi resort to WMD.[51] After the war, the Defense Intelligence Agency credited these threats with deterring Iraq from launching chemical attacks on Coalition forces.[50] Nevertheless, Saddam Hussein did have a contingency plan to launch WMD-armed warheads against Tel Aviv in the event that he became cut off from the Iraqi Armed Forces leadership or if the Iraqi government was about to collapse, which almost certainly would have triggered a retaliatory nuclear response from Israel. Saddam ultimately never deemed this option necessary because he never felt as if his government was about to collapse.[52]

25 January 1995

Russian President Boris Yeltsin became the first world leader to activate the Russian nuclear briefcase after Russian radar systems detected the launch of what was later determined to be a Norwegian Black Brant XII research rocket being used to study the Northern Lights.[53] Russian ballistic missile submarines were put on alert in preparation for a possible retaliatory strike.[54] When it became clear the rocket did not pose a threat to Russia and was not part of a larger attack, the alarm was cancelled. Russia was in fact one of a number of countries earlier informed of the launch; however, the information had not reached the Russian radar operators.[6]

2000s

29–30 August 2007

On 29 August 2007, six nuclear armed AGM-129 ACM cruise missiles were mistakenly loaded onto a United States Air Force (USAF) B-52H heavy bomber at Minot Air Force Base in North Dakota and transported to Barksdale Air Force Base in Louisiana. The nuclear warheads in the missiles were supposed to have been removed before the missiles were taken from their storage bunker. The missiles with the nuclear warheads were not reported missing and remained mounted to the aircraft at both Minot and Barksdale for 36 hours. During this period, the warheads were not protected by the various mandatory security precautions for nuclear weapons, and the government was not aware of their location. The incident was the first of its kind in forty years in the United States and was later described by the media as "one of the worst breaches in U.S. nuclear weapons security in decades".[55]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Fromm, M.; Stocks, B.; Servranckx, R. et al. (2006). "Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union (Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union) 87 (52 Fall Meet. Suppl): Abstract U14A–04. Bibcode: 2006AGUFM.U14A..04F. http://www.agu.org/meetings/fm06/fm06-sessions/fm06_U14A.html. 
  2. ↑ Davenport, Kelsey (1 January 2022). "Nuclear Weapons: Who has what at a glance". Arms Control Association. https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat. 
  3. ↑ Lewis, Patricia; Williams, Heather; Pelopidas, Benoit; Aghlani, Sasan (28 April 2014). "Too Close for Comfort: Cases of Near Nuclear Use and Options for Policy". Chatham House. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2014/04/too-close-comfort-cases-near-nuclear-use-and-options-policy. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Philips, Alan F. (1998). "20 Mishaps That Might Have Started Accidental Nuclear War". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. http://nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/accidents/20-mishaps-maybe-caused-nuclear-war.htm. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 M.H. Halperin (December 1966). The 1958 Taiwan Straits Crisis: A Documented History. Daniel Ellsberg. pp. i–xvii. https://archive.org/details/The1958TaiwanStraitsCrisisADocumentedHistory_201712. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "Close Calls with Nuclear Weapons". http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2015/04/Close%20Calls%20with%20Nuclear%20Weapons.pdf. 
  7. ↑ Carlson, Peter (2009). K Blows Top: A Cold War Comic Interlude Starring Nikita Khrushchev, America's Most Unlikely Tourist. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-497-2. 
  8. ↑ Stevens, Matt; Mele, Christopher (2018). "Causes of False Missile Alerts: The Sun, the Moon and a 46-Cent Chip" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/13/us/false-alarm-missile-alerts.html. 
  9. ↑ Schneider, Barry (May 1975). "Big Bangs from Little Bombs". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 31 (5): 28. doi:10.1080/00963402.1975.11458238. Bibcode: 1975BuAtS..31e..24S. https://books.google.com/books?id=dQsAAAAAMBAJ. Retrieved 13 July 2009. 
  10. ↑ Sedgwick, Jessica. "Bombs Over Goldsboro". This Month in North Carolina History (January 2008). http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/ref/nchistory/jan2008/index.html. 
  11. ↑ The declassified document says 24 megaton. However, Hansen wrote that "the United States has never deployed such a high-yield weapon". , Wikidata Q109333421
  12. ↑ "Goldsboro revisited: account of hydrogen bomb near-disaster over North Carolina – declassified document" (in en). 20 September 2013. http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/sep/20/goldsboro-revisited-declassified-document. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Sagan, Scott D. (1993). The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons. Princeton University Press. pp. 3, 99–100. ISBN 978-0-691-21306-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=AObaDwAAQBAJ&q=%22volk+field%22. 
  14. ↑ Rhodes, Richard (19 June 1995). "The General and World War III". The New Yorker: 47–59. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1995/06/19/the-general-and-world-war-iii. 
  15. ↑ Michael Dobbs, One Minute to Midnight, Vintage, Random House, 2009.
  16. ↑ Robinson-Leon, Jeremy; Burr, William. "IV. Chronology of Submarine Contact During the Cuban Missile Crisis October 1, 1962 – November 14, 1962". George Washington University. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB75/subchron.htm. 
  17. ↑ Edward Wilson (27 October 2012). "Thank you Vasili Arkhipov, the man who stopped nuclear war". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/oct/27/vasili-arkhipov-stopped-nuclear-war. 
  18. ↑ Noam Chomsky (2004). Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance. New York: Henry Holt. p. 74. ISBN 0-8050-7688-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx3ptbzQ8L4C&pg=PA74. 
  19. ↑ Michael Dobbs (June 2008). "Lost in Enemy Airspace". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/06/missile_crisis_excerpt200806. Retrieved 29 August 2016. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Dobbs, Michael (2008). One minute to midnight : Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the brink of nuclear war (1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26936-2. OCLC 608213334. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/608213334. 
  21. ↑ "Air-to-air Missile Non-comparison Table". X-Plane. http://www.x-plane.org/home/urf/aviation/text/missiles/aam.html. 
  22. ↑ Masakatsu, Ota (30 March 2015). "U.S. Veterans Reveal 1962 Nuclear Close Call Dodged in Okinawa". https://apjjf.org/-Steve-Rabson/4825/article.html. 
  23. ↑ Tritten, Travis (23 December 2015). "Cold War Missileers refute Okinawa near-launch". Stars and Stripes. http://www.stripes.com/news/special-reports/features/cold-war-missileers-refute-okinawa-near-launch-1.385439. 
  24. ↑ https://www.lopinion.fr/secret-defense/le-jour-ou-un-mirage-iv-decolla-avec-une-vraie-bombe-nucleaire-actualise-3
  25. ↑ Knipp, D. J.; Ramsay, A. C.; Beard, E. D.; Boright, A. L.; Cade, W. B.; Hewins, I. M.; McFadden, R. H.; Denig, W. F. et al. (September 2016). "The May 1967 great storm and radio disruption event: Extreme space weather and extraordinary responses" (in en). Space Weather 14 (9): 614–633. doi:10.1002/2016SW001423. ISSN 1542-7390. 
  26. ↑ Wall, Michael D. (9 August 2016). "How a 1967 Solar Storm Nearly Led to Nuclear War". http://www.space.com/33687-solar-storm-cold-war-false-alarm.html. 
  27. ↑ Schuster, Bob. "Nixon Considered Nuclear Option Against N. Korea" (in en). https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128337461. 
  28. ↑ McGreal, Chris (7 July 2023). "Papers reveal Nixon plan for North Korea nuclear strike" (in en-GB). The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/07/nixon-north-korea-nuclear-strike. 
  29. ↑ Anthony, Summers (2 September 2000). "Drunk in charge (part two)". https://www.theguardian.com/weekend/story/0,3605,362958,00.html. 
  30. ↑ "Yom Kippur: Israel's 1973 nuclear alert" (in en). https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2002/09/16/Yom-Kippur-Israels-1973-nuclear-alert/64941032228992/. 
  31. ↑ "Did Israel ever consider using nuclear weapons?" (in en). Haaretz. https://www.haaretz.com/1.5122006. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Burr, Williiam (1 March 2012). "The 3 A.M. Phone Call: False Warnings of Soviet Missile Attacks during 1979-80 Led to Alert Actions for U.S. Strategic Forces" (in en). National Security Archive. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/nukevault/ebb371/. 
  33. ↑ "Norad false alarm causes uproar". CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/norad-false-alarm-causes-uproar. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Burr, William (6 April 2020). "False Warnings of Soviet Missile Attacks Put U.S. Forces on Alert in 1979-1980" (in en). National Security Archive. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2020-03-16/false-warnings-soviet-missile-attacks-during-1979-80-led-alert-actions-us-strategic-forces. 
  35. ↑ "Encyclopedia of Arkansas". https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/titan-ii-missile-explosion-2543/. 
  36. ↑ Hoffman, David (10 February 1999). "I Had A Funny Feeling in My Gut". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/coldwar/shatter021099b.htm. 
  37. ↑ Shane, Scott (31 August 2003). "Cold War's Riskiest Moment". Baltimore Sun. http://hnn.us/articles/1709.html#bombs9-5-03.  article reprinted as "The Nuclear War That Almost Happened in 1983"
  38. ↑ "Stanislav Petrov, who averted possible nuclear war, dies at 77". BBC. 18 September 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41314948. 
  39. ↑ "Stanislav Petrov, 'the man who saved the world' from nuclear war, dies at 77". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 21 September 2017. https://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-stanislavsky-petrov-20170921-story.html. 
  40. ↑ Myre, Greg (18 September 2017). "Stanislav Petrov, 'The Man Who Saved The World,' Dies At 77". NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2017/09/18/551792129/stanislav-petrov-the-man-who-saved-the-world-dies-at-77. 
  41. ↑ Daley, Jason (18 September 2017). Man Who Saved the World From Nuclear Annihilation Dies at 77: In 1983, Soviet lieutenant colonel Stanislav Petrov kept his cool and reported a U.S. missile strike as a false alarm, preventing a massive counterstrike. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/man-who-saved-world-nuclear-annihilation-dies-77-180964934/. Retrieved 17 January 2018. 
  42. ↑ Jones, Nate. "The Able Archer 83 Sourcebook". National Security Archive. https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/project/able-archer-83-sourcebook. 
  43. ↑ "Exercise Scenario," Background Paper, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Unclassified, date unknown, via National Security Archive.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Jones, Nate; Harper, Lauren (21 May 2013). "The 1983 War Scare: "The Last Paroxysm" of the Cold War Part II" (in en). National Security Archive. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB427/. 
  45. ↑ Walker, Martin (1993). The Cold War: A History. New York: Henry Holt and Company. p. 276. 
  46. ↑ Pry, War Scare, 43–4.
  47. ↑ Gates, From the Shadows, 271, 272.
  48. ↑ Oberdorfer, A New Era, 67.
  49. ↑ Ap (28 July 1990). "Israeli Sees Chemical Option Against Iraqis" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/28/world/israeli-sees-chemical-option-against-iraqis.html. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Pike, John (19 February 1998). "Nuclear Threats During the Gulf War". https://irp.fas.org/eprint/ds-threats.htm. 
  51. ↑ Iddon, Paul (24 January 2017). "Saddam Hussein Seriously Feared a U.S. Nuclear Strike During the Gulf War" (in en). https://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/saddam-hussein-seriously-feared-us-nuclear-strike-during-the-19164. 
  52. ↑ "'Saddam gave orders to fire chemical weapons at Tel Aviv if he was toppled in First Gulf War'" (in en-US). http://www.timesofisrael.com/saddam-gave-orders-to-fire-chemical-weapons-at-tel-aviv-if-he-was-toppled-in-first-gulf-war/. 
  53. ↑ Hoffman, David (15 March 1998). "Cold-War Doctrines Refuse to Die". Washington Post Foreign Service. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/coldwar/shatter031598a.htm. 
  54. ↑ "January 25, 1995—The Norwegian Rocket Incident". United States European Command. 23 January 2012. http://www.eucom.mil/article/23042/this-week-in-eucom-history-january-23-29-1995. 
  55. ↑ Ricks, "Tough Punishment Expected for Warhead Errors", Warrick, "Missteps in the Bunker"

Further reading



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