Physics:Quantum particle
Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. It studies elementary particles, their interactions, and composite particles such as protons, neutrons, mesons, and other hadrons.
Description
Particle physics studies the smallest known building blocks of nature and the forces acting between them. The fundamental particles in the universe are classified in the Standard Model as fermions, which are matter particles, and bosons, which are force-carrying particles.
Ordinary matter is made mainly from first-generation fermions: up and down quarks, electrons, and electron neutrinos. Up and down quarks form protons and neutrons, while electrons form the outer structure of atoms.
The Standard Model describes three fundamental interactions:
- electromagnetism
- the weak interaction
- the strong interaction
Gravity is not yet fully incorporated into the Standard Model. Attempts to reconcile gravity with quantum theory include string theory, loop quantum gravity, and other approaches beyond the Standard Model.
History
The idea that matter is made of smaller constituents dates back to ancient atomism.[1] In the nineteenth century, John Dalton argued from stoichiometry that each chemical element consisted of a distinct kind of atom.[2]
In the twentieth century, atoms were shown to contain smaller particles such as electrons, protons, and neutrons. Nuclear physics and quantum physics led to the understanding of nuclear fission and fusion. Hans Bethe’s work on the Lamb shift is often regarded as opening the way toward modern particle physics.[3]
During the 1950s and 1960s, many new particles were discovered in high-energy collisions. This variety became known as the "particle zoo". The development of the quark model and the Standard Model explained many of these particles as composites of a smaller set of elementary particles.[4][5]
Standard Model
The Standard Model is the current framework for classifying elementary particles and describing their electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions. It includes quarks, leptons, gauge bosons, and the Higgs boson.
The gauge bosons include the photon, eight gluons, the W and Z bosons, and the Higgs boson as a scalar boson associated with the Higgs field.[6]
The Standard Model contains fundamental fermions arranged in three generations. It has been tested with great precision, but it is incomplete because it does not include gravity and does not fully explain dark matter, dark energy, or the origin of neutrino masses.[7][8]
On 4 July 2012, CERN announced the discovery of a new particle consistent with the Higgs boson.[9]
Elementary particles
Elementary particles are particles that, according to current understanding, are not made of smaller constituents.[10] They are described by quantum states and by quantum field theory.
Particle physics includes electrons, quarks, neutrinos, photons, muons, gluons, W and Z bosons, the Higgs boson, and many composite particles produced in radioactive decay, scattering, cosmic rays, and accelerator experiments.[11]
Quarks and leptons
Quarks and leptons are fermions. Ordinary matter is composed almost entirely of first-generation particles: up quarks, down quarks, electrons, and electron neutrinos.[12]
Fermions have half-integer spin and obey the Pauli exclusion principle.[13]
Quarks have fractional electric charge and color charge.[14][15] Because of color confinement, isolated quarks are not observed under ordinary conditions.[15]
Leptons include the electron, muon, tau, and their associated neutrinos. Leptons have integer electric charge: charged leptons have charge −1, while neutrinos are electrically neutral.[16]
Bosons
Bosons are particles with integer spin. In the Standard Model, gauge bosons mediate fundamental interactions.[17]
The photon mediates electromagnetism.[18] The W and Z bosons mediate the weak interaction.[19] Gluons mediate the strong interaction and bind quarks into hadrons.[20]
The Higgs boson is associated with the Higgs mechanism, which gives mass to the W and Z bosons.[21]
Composite particles
Composite particles are made of smaller constituents. Protons and neutrons are baryons made of three quarks.[22] A proton contains two up quarks and one down quark, while a neutron contains two down quarks and one up quark.
Baryons and mesons are collectively called hadrons. Mesons contain a quark and an antiquark. More exotic hadrons, such as tetraquarks and pentaquarks, contain other arrangements of quarks.[23]
Atoms are made from protons, neutrons, and electrons.[24] Exotic atoms may be formed when one ordinary constituent is replaced by another particle, such as a muon.[25]
Antiparticles
Most particles have corresponding antiparticles with the same mass but opposite charge or opposite quantum numbers. The antiparticle of the electron is the positron. When a particle and its antiparticle meet, they may annihilate into other particles or photons.[26]
Antiparticles carry opposite baryon or lepton number compared with their corresponding matter particles.[27]
Experimental particle physics
Experimental particle physics studies particles using radioactive decay, cosmic rays, detectors, and particle accelerators. Important laboratories include CERN, Fermilab, Brookhaven National Laboratory, DESY, KEK, SLAC, and other accelerator centers.
The Large Hadron Collider at CERN is the world’s most powerful proton collider and was used in the discovery of the Higgs boson.[28]
Other experiments study neutrino oscillations, heavy-ion collisions, antimatter, rare decays, and possible physics beyond the Standard Model.[29]
Theory
Theoretical particle physics develops models and mathematical tools to explain experiments and predict new phenomena. It uses quantum mechanics, special relativity, quantum field theory, gauge theory, effective field theory, perturbation theory, and lattice field theory.
Major theoretical directions include:
- precision tests of the Standard Model
- quantum chromodynamics
- neutrino physics
- Higgs physics
- physics beyond the Standard Model
- supersymmetry
- dark matter candidates
- string theory
- quantum gravity
The Standard Model is highly successful but incomplete, motivating searches for new particles and interactions.[30][31]
Practical applications
Particle physics has produced many practical technologies. Particle accelerators are used to create medical isotopes, support radiation therapy, and study materials. Detector technologies are used in imaging, security, and industry.
The World Wide Web was developed at CERN, and accelerator and detector research has contributed to superconducting technology, computing, medical imaging, and radiation treatment.[32]
Future directions
Future particle physics aims to test the Standard Model more precisely and search for new physics. Proposed or planned directions include next-generation colliders, neutrino experiments, dark matter searches, precision Higgs measurements, and underground detectors.
The Future Circular Collider has been proposed as a possible successor to the LHC at CERN.[33]
Properties
- studies fundamental particles and interactions
- based on quantum mechanics and quantum field theory
- classified by the Standard Model
- includes fermions, bosons, antiparticles, and composite particles
- uses accelerators, detectors, and high-energy collisions
- connects atomic physics, nuclear physics, cosmology, and quantum theory
See also
Table of contents (184 articles)
Index
Full contents
- Physics:Quantum basics
- Physics:Quantum Postulates
- Physics:Quantum Hilbert space
- Physics:Quantum Observables and operators
- Physics:Quantum mechanics
- Physics:Quantum mechanics measurements
- Physics:Quantum state
- Physics:Quantum system
- Physics:Quantum superposition
- Physics:Quantum probability
- Physics:Quantum Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Theory
- Physics:Quantum Interpretations of quantum mechanics
- Physics:Quantum Wave–particle duality
- Physics:Quantum Complementarity principle
- Physics:Quantum Uncertainty principle
- Physics:Quantum Measurement problem
- Physics:Quantum Bell's theorem
- Physics:Quantum Hidden variable theory
- Physics:Quantum nonlocality
- Physics:Quantum contextuality
- Physics:Quantum Darwinism
- Physics:Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance
- Physics:Quantum A Walk Through the Universe
- Physics:Quantum The Secret of Cohesion and How Waves Hold Matter Together
- Physics:Quantum measurement problem
- Physics:Quantum Density matrix
- Physics:Quantum Exactly solvable quantum systems
- Physics:Quantum Formulas Collection
- Physics:Quantum A Matter Of Size
- Physics:Quantum Symmetry in quantum mechanics
- Physics:Quantum Angular momentum operator
- Physics:Quantum Runge–Lenz vector
- Physics:Quantum Approximation Methods
- Physics:Quantum Matter Elements and Particles
- Physics:Quantum Dirac equation
- Physics:Quantum Klein–Gordon equation
- Physics:Quantum pendulum
- Physics:Quantum configuration space
- Physics:Quantum Atomic structure and spectroscopy
- Physics:Quantum Hydrogen atom
- Physics:Quantum number
- Physics:Quantum Multi-electron atoms
- Physics:Quantum Fine structure
- Physics:Quantum Hyperfine structure
- Physics:Quantum Isotopic shift
- Physics:Quantum defect
- Physics:Quantum Zeeman effect
- Physics:Quantum Stark effect
- Physics:Quantum Spectral lines and series
- Physics:Quantum Selection rules
- Physics:Quantum Fermi's golden rule
- Physics:Quantum beats
- Physics:Quantum Wavefunction
- Physics:Quantum Superposition principle
- Physics:Quantum Eigenstates and eigenvalues
- Physics:Quantum Boundary conditions and quantization
- Physics:Quantum Standing waves and modes
- Physics:Quantum Normal modes and field quantization
- Physics:Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume
- Physics:Quantum Density of states
- Physics:Quantum carpet
- Physics:Quantum Time evolution
- Physics:Quantum Schrödinger equation
- Physics:Quantum Time-dependent Schrödinger equation
- Physics:Quantum Stationary states
- Physics:Quantum Perturbation theory
- Physics:Quantum Time-dependent perturbation theory
- Physics:Quantum Adiabatic theorem
- Physics:Quantum Scattering theory
- Physics:Quantum S-matrix
- Physics:Quantum tunnelling
- Physics:Quantum speed limit
- Physics:Quantum revival
- Physics:Quantum reflection
- Physics:Quantum oscillations
- Physics:Quantum jump
- Physics:Quantum boomerang effect
- Physics:Quantum chaos
- Physics:Quantum information theory
- Physics:Quantum Qubit
- Physics:Quantum Entanglement
- Physics:Quantum Gates and circuits
- Physics:Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era
- Physics:Quantum Noisy Qubits
- Physics:Quantum random access code
- Physics:Quantum pseudo-telepathy
- Physics:Quantum network
- Physics:Quantum money
- Physics:Quantum Nonlinear King plot anomaly in calcium isotope spectroscopy
- Physics:Quantum optics beam splitter experiments
- Physics:Quantum Ultra fast lasers
- Physics:Quantum Experimental quantum physics
- Physics:Quantum optics Template:Quantum optics operators
- Physics:Quantum field theory (QFT) basics
- Physics:Quantum field theory (QFT) core
- Physics:Quantum Fields and Particles
- Physics:Quantum Second quantization
- Physics:Quantum Harmonic Oscillator field modes
- Physics:Quantum Creation and annihilation operators
- Physics:Quantum vacuum fluctuations
- Physics:Quantum Propagators in quantum field theory
- Physics:Quantum Feynman diagrams
- Physics:Quantum Path integral formulation
- Physics:Quantum Renormalization in field theory
- Physics:Quantum Renormalization group
- Physics:Quantum Field Theory Gauge symmetry
- Physics:Quantum Non-Abelian gauge theory
- Physics:Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
- Physics:Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
- Physics:Quantum Electroweak theory
- Physics:Quantum Standard Model
- Physics:Quantum triviality
- Physics:Quantum confinement problem
- Physics:Quantum Statistical mechanics
- Physics:Quantum Partition function
- Physics:Quantum Distribution functions
- Physics:Quantum Liouville equation
- Physics:Quantum Kinetic theory
- Physics:Quantum Boltzmann equation
- Physics:Quantum BBGKY hierarchy
- Physics:Quantum Relaxation and thermalization
- Physics:Quantum Thermodynamics
- Physics:Quantum Band structure
- Physics:Quantum Fermi surfaces
- Physics:Quantum Semiconductor physics
- Physics:Quantum Phonons
- Physics:Quantum Electron-phonon interaction
- Physics:Quantum Superconductivity
- Physics:Quantum Topological phases of matter
- Physics:Quantum well
- Physics:Quantum spin liquid
- Physics:Quantum spin Hall effect
- Physics:Quantum phase transition
- Physics:Quantum critical point
- Physics:Quantum dot
- Physics:Quantum Fusion reactions and Lawson criterion
- Physics:Quantum Plasma (fusion context)
- Physics:Quantum Magnetic confinement fusion
- Physics:Quantum Inertial confinement fusion
- Physics:Quantum Plasma instabilities and turbulence
- Physics:Quantum Tokamak core plasma
- Physics:Quantum Tokamak edge physics and recycling asymmetries
- Physics:Quantum Stellarator
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Pre-quantum era
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Old quantum theory
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Modern quantum mechanics
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum field theory era
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum information era
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum technology era
- Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quiz
- Physics:Quantum topology
- Physics:Quantum battery
- Physics:Quantum Supersymmetry
- Physics:Quantum Black hole thermodynamics
- Physics:Quantum Holographic principle
- Physics:Quantum gravity
- Physics:Quantum De Sitter invariant special relativity
- Physics:Quantum Doubly special relativity
- Physics:Quantum arithmetic geometry
- Physics:Quantum unsolved problems
- Physics:Quantum Yang-Mills mass gap
- Physics:Quantum gravity problem
- Physics:Quantum black hole information paradox
- Physics:Quantum dark matter problem
- Physics:Quantum neutrino mass problem
- Physics:Quantum matter-antimatter asymmetry problem
References
- ↑ "Fundamentals of Physics and Nuclear Physics". http://novelresearchinstitute.org/library/PhysNuclphys196p.pdf.
- ↑ Grossman, M. I. (2014). "John Dalton and the London Atomists". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 68 (4): 339–356. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2014.0025.
- ↑ Brown, Gerald Edward; Lee, Chang-Hwan (2006). Hans Bethe and His Physics. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. p. 161. ISBN 978-981-256-609-6. https://archive.org/details/hansbethehisphys0000unse/page/161.
- ↑ Weinberg, Steven (1995–2000). The quantum theory of fields. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-67053-1.
- ↑ Jaeger, Gregg (2021). "The Elementary Particles of Quantum Fields". Entropy 23 (11): 1416. doi:10.3390/e23111416. PMID 34828114. Bibcode: 2021Entrp..23.1416J.
- ↑ Baker, Joanne (2013). 50 quantum physics ideas you really need to know. London. pp. 120–123. ISBN 978-1-78087-911-6. OCLC 857653602.
- ↑ Nakamura, K. (1 July 2010). "Review of Particle Physics". Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 37 (7A): 1–708. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021. PMID 10020536. Bibcode: 2010JPhG...37g5021N.
- ↑ "Neutrinos in the Standard Model". The T2K Collaboration. https://t2k-experiment.org/neutrinos/in-the-standard-model.
- ↑ Mann, Adam (28 March 2013). "Newly Discovered Particle Appears to Be Long-Awaited Higgs Boson". Wired Science. https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/07/higgs-boson-discovery/. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
- ↑ Braibant, S.; Giacomelli, G.; Spurio, M. (2009). Particles and Fundamental Interactions: An Introduction to Particle Physics. Springer. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-94-007-2463-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=0Pp-f0G9_9sC&q=61+fundamental+particles&pg=PA314. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ↑ Terranova, Francesco (2021). A Modern Primer in Particle and Nuclear Physics.. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-19-284524-5.
- ↑ Povh, B.; Rith, K.; Scholz, C.; Zetsche, F.; Lavelle, M. (2004). "Part I: Analysis: The building blocks of matter". Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts (4th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-20168-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&q=povh+%22building+blocks+of+matter%22&pg=PA9. Retrieved 28 July 2022. "Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the u and d quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino."
- ↑ Peacock, K. A. (2008). The Quantum Revolution. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-313-33448-1. https://archive.org/details/quantumrevolutio00peac.
- ↑ Quigg, C. (2006). "Particles and the Standard Model". in G. Fraser. The New Physics for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-521-81600-7.
- ↑ Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2013-01-01) (in en). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, Volume 2. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-62958-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ecYWAAAAQBAJ.
- ↑ Carroll, Sean (2007). Guidebook. Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The dark side of the universe. The Teaching Company. Part 2, p. 43. ISBN 978-1-59803-350-2.
- ↑ "Role as gauge boson and polarization" §5.1 in Aitchison, I. J. R.; Hey, A. J. G. (1993). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics. IOP Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85274-328-7.
- ↑ Watkins, Peter (1986). Story of the W and Z. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-521-31875-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=J808AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA70. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
- ↑ Nave, C. R.. "The Color Force". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/color.html.
- ↑ "Higgs bosons: Theory and searches". Particle Data Group. 2007. http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/reviews/higgs_s055.pdf.
- ↑ Munowitz, M. (2005). Knowing. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-19-516737-6.
- ↑ Close, F. E. (1988). "Gluonic Hadrons". Reports on Progress in Physics 51 (6): 833–882. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/51/6/002. Bibcode: 1988RPPh...51..833C.
- ↑ Kofoed, Melissa; Miller, Shawn (July 2024). Introductory Chemistry. https://uen.pressbooks.pub/introductorychemistry/.
- ↑ Fleming, D. G.; Arseneau, D. J.; Sukhorukov, O.; Brewer, J. H.; Mielke, S. L.; Schatz, G. C.; Garrett, B. C.; Peterson, K. A. et al. (28 Jan 2011). "Kinetic Isotope Effects for the Reactions of Muonic Helium and Muonium with H2". Science 331 (6016): 448–450. doi:10.1126/science.1199421. PMID 21273484. Bibcode: 2011Sci...331..448F. https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1199421.
- ↑ "Antimatter". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. http://www.lbl.gov/abc/Antimatter.html.
- ↑ Tsan, Ung Chan (2013). "Mass, Matter, Materialization, Mattergenesis and Conservation of Charge". International Journal of Modern Physics E 22 (5): 1350027. doi:10.1142/S0218301313500274. Bibcode: 2013IJMPE..2250027T.
- ↑ "Welcome to". Info.cern.ch. http://info.cern.ch/.
- ↑ "Kek | High Energy Accelerator Research Organization". Legacy.kek.jp. http://legacy.kek.jp/intra-e/index.html.
- ↑ Gagnon, Pauline (March 14, 2014). "Standard Model: a beautiful but flawed theory". http://www.quantumdiaries.org/2014/03/14/the-standard-model-a-beautiful-but-flawed-theory/.
- ↑ "The Standard Model". https://home.cern/science/physics/standard-model.
- ↑ "Fermilab | Science at Fermilab | Benefits to Society". Fnal.gov. http://www.fnal.gov/pub/science/benefits/.
- ↑ "Muon Colliders Hold a Key to Unraveling New Physics" (in en). http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/202111/muon.cfm.
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