Social:Cultural competence

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Short description: Set of behaviours or social skills


Cultural competence, also known as intercultural competence, is a range of cognitive, affective, behavioral, and linguistic skills that lead to effective and appropriate communication with people of other cultures. Intercultural or cross-cultural education are terms used for the training to achieve cultural competence.

Introduction

According to UNESCO, intercultural competence involves a combination of skills, attitudes, and knowledge that enables individuals to navigate cultural differences and build meaningful relationships. UNESCO emphasizes that developing these competencies is essential for promoting peace, tolerance, and inclusion in diverse societies. [1]

Effective intercultural communication comprises behaviors that accomplish the desired goals of the interaction and parties involved. It includes behaviors that suit cultural expectations, situational characteristics, and characteristics of relationship.

Characteristics

Individuals who are effective and appropriate in intercultural situations display high levels of cultural self-awareness and understand the influence of culture on behavior, values, and beliefs.[2][3] Cognitive processes imply the understanding of situational and environmental aspects of intercultural interactions and the application of intercultural awareness, which is affected by the understanding of the self and own culture. Self-awareness in intercultural interactions requires self-monitoring to censor anything not acceptable to another culture. Cultural sensitivity or cultural awareness leads the individual to an understanding of how their own culture determines feelings, thoughts, and personality.[4][5]

Affective processes define the emotions that span during intercultural interactions. These emotions are strongly related to self-concept, open-mindedness, non-judgmentalism, and social relaxation. In general, positive emotions generate respect for other cultures and their differences.[5] Behavioral processes refer to how effectively and appropriately the individual directs actions to achieve goals. Actions during intercultural interactions are influenced by the ability to clearly convey a message, proficiency with the foreign language, flexibility and management of behavior, and social skills.[4][5]

Creating intercultural competence

Intercultural competence is determined by the presence of cognitive, affective, and behavioral abilities that directly shape communication across cultures.[5][6][7] These essential abilities can be separated into five specific skills that are obtained through education and experience:[3]

  1. Mindfulness: the ability of being cognitively aware of how the communication and interaction with others is developed. It is important to focus more in the process of the interaction than its outcome while maintaining in perspective the desired communication goals. For example, it would be better to formulate questions such as "What can I say or do to help this process?" rather than "What do they mean?"[3]
  2. Cognitive flexibility: the ability of creating new categories of information rather than keeping old categories. This skill includes opening to new information, taking more than one perspective, and understanding personal ways of interpreting messages and situations.[3][8]
  3. Tolerance for ambiguity: the ability to maintain focus in situations that are not clear rather than becoming anxious and to methodically determine the best approach as the situation evolves. Generally, low-tolerance individuals look for information that supports their beliefs while high-tolerance individuals look for information that gives an understanding of the situation and others.[3]
  4. Behavioral flexibility: the ability to adapt and accommodate behaviors to a different culture. Although knowing a second language could be important for this skill, it does not necessarily translate into cultural adaptability. The individual must be willing to assimilate the new culture.[3][9]
  5. Cross-cultural empathy: the ability to visualize with the imagination the situation of another person from an intellectual and emotional point of view. Demonstrating empathy includes the abilities of connecting emotionally with people, showing compassion, thinking in more than one perspective, and listening actively.[3][10][11]

Assessment

The assessment of cross-cultural competence is a field that is rife with controversy. One survey identified 86 assessment instruments for 3C.[12] A United States Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative instruments that were suitable for further exploration of their reliability and validity.[13]

The following characteristics are tested and observed for the assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability or as the potential to develop it: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform, empathy, metacommunicative competence, and polycentrism. According to Caligiuri, personality traits such as extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness have a favorable predictive value to the adequate termination of cross-cultural assignments.[14]

Quantitative assessment instruments

Three examples of quantitative assessment instruments are:[13]

  • the Intercultural Development Inventory[15]
  • the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Measurement[16]
  • the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire[17]

Qualitative assessment instruments

Research in the area of 3C assessment, while thin, points to the value of qualitative assessment instruments in concert with quantitative ones.[18][19][20] Qualitative instruments, such as scenario-based assessments, are useful for gaining insight into intercultural competence.[21][22][23] Intercultural coaching frameworks, such as the ICCA (Intercultural Communication and Collaboration Appraisal), do not attempt an assessment; they provide guidance for personal improvement based upon the identification of personal traits, strengths, and weaknesses.[24][25]

Healthcare

The provision of culturally tailored health care can improve patient outcomes. In 2005, California passed Assembly Bill 1195 that requires patient-related continuing medical education courses in California medical school to incorporate cultural and linguistic competence training in order to qualify for certification credits.[26] In 2011, HealthPartners Institute for Education and Research implemented the EBAN Experience™ program to reduce health disparities among minority populations, most notably East African immigrants.[27][28]

Cross-cultural competence

Cross-cultural competence (3C) has generated confusing and contradictory definitions because it has been studied by a wide variety of academic approaches and professional fields. One author identified eleven different terms that have some equivalence to 3C: cultural savvy, astuteness, appreciation, literacy or fluency, adaptability, terrain, expertise, competency, awareness, intelligence, and understanding.[29] The United States Army Research Institute, which is currently engaged in a study of 3C has defined it as "A set of cognitive, behavioral, and affective/motivational components that enable individuals to adapt effectively in intercultural environments".Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tagCite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Such individuals may be said to have adopted bicultural identities.

Ethnocentrism

See also: Social:Ethnocentrism

Another issue that stands out in intercultural communication is the attitude stemming from ethnocentrism. LeVine and Campbell defines ethnocentrism as people's tendency to view their culture or in-group as superior to other groups, and to judge those groups to their standards.[30] With ethnocentric attitudes, those incapable to expand their view of different cultures could create conflict between groups. Ignorance to diversity and cultural groups contributes to prevention of peaceful interaction in a fast-paced globalizing world. The counterpart of ethnocentrism is ethnorelativism: the ability to see multiple values, beliefs, norms etc. in the world as cultural rather than universal; being able to understand and accept different cultures as equally valid as ones' own. It is a mindset that moves beyond in-group out-group to see all groups as equally important and valid and individuals to be seen in terms of their own cultural context.

Cultural differences

There is several approaches to determine and measure cultural dimensions. Among them the following can be found in academia: Kluckhohn/ Strodtbeck (Early pioneers[31]), Etward T. Hall (Focus on Context Communication and Time-Perception, a.o.[32]), Geert Hofstede (Widely known author[33] discussed below), Fons Trompenaars[34] (Well known in business), and the Globe Study[35] (well established in research). According to Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory, cultural characteristics can be measured along several dimensions. The ability to perceive them and to cope with them is fundamental for intercultural competence. These characteristics include:

Individualism versus collectivism

  • Collectivism[36][37][38]
    • Decisions are based on the benefits of the group rather than the individual;
    • Strong loyalty to the group as the main social unit;
    • The group is expected to take care of each individual;
    • Collectivist cultures include Pakistan, India, and Guatemala.
  • Individualism[36][37][38]
    • Autonomy of the individual has the highest importance;
    • Promotes the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance;
    • Decisions prioritize the benefits of the individual rather than the group;
    • Individualistic cultures are Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the United States.

Masculinity versus femininity

  • Masculine Cultures[36][38]
    • Value behaviors that indicate assertiveness and wealth;
    • Judge people based on the degree of ambition and achievement;
    • General behaviors are associated with male behavior;
    • Sex roles are clearly defined and sexual inequality is acceptable;
    • Masculine cultures include Austria, Italy, Japan, and Mexico.
  • Feminine Cultures[36][38]
    • Value behaviors that promote the quality of life such as caring for others and nurturing;
    • Gender roles overlap and sexual equality is preferred as the norm;
    • Nurturing behaviors are acceptable for both women and men;
    • Feminine cultures are Chile, Portugal, Sweden, and Thailand.

Uncertainty avoidance

  • Reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty;
  • Uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which a person in society feels comfortable with a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity.
    • High uncertainty avoidance cultures[36][38]
      • Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance Index or UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas;
      • Members of society expect consensus about national and societal goals;
      • Society ensures security by setting extensive rules and keeping more structure;
      • High uncertainty avoidance cultures are Greece, Guatemala, Portugal, and Uruguay.
    • Low uncertainty avoidance cultures[36][38]
      • Low UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles;
      • Low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible;
      • People in these cultures are more tolerant of change and accept risks;
      • Low uncertainty avoidance cultures are Denmark, Jamaica, Ireland, and Singapore.

[36][38]

Power distance

  • Refers to the degree in which cultures accept unequal distribution of power and challenge the decisions of power holders;
  • Depending on the culture, some people may be considered superior to others because of a large number of factors such as wealth, age, occupation, gender, personal achievements, and family history.
    • High power distance cultures[36][38]
      • Believe that social and class hierarchy and inequalities are beneficial, that authority should not be challenged, and that people with higher social status have the right to use power;
      • Cultures with high power distance are Arab countries, Guatemala, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
    • Low power distance cultures[36][38]
      • Believe in reducing inequalities, challenging authority, minimizing hierarchical structures, and using power just when necessary;
      • Low power distance countries are Austria, Denmark, Israel, and New Zealand.

[36][38]

Short-term versus long-term orientation

* Short-term or Monochronic Orientation[3][36][38]
    • Cultures value tradition, personal stability, maintaining "face", and reciprocity during interpersonal interactions
    • People expect quick results after actions
    • Historical events and beliefs influence people's actions in the present
    • Monochronic cultures are Canada, Philippines, Nigeria, Pakistan, and the United States
  • Long-term or Polychronic Orientation[3][36][38]
    • Cultures value persistence, thriftiness, and humility
    • People sacrifice immediate gratification for long-term commitments
    • Cultures believe that past results do not guarantee for the future and are aware of change
    • Polychronic cultures are China, Japan, Brazil, and India

Criticisms

Although its goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think differently, it may fail to recognize specific differences between individuals of any given group. Such differences can be more significant than the differences between groups, especially in the case of heterogeneous populations and value systems.[39]

Madison has criticized the tendency of 3C training for its tendency to simplify migration and cross-cultural processes into stages and phases.[40]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ UNESCO (2013). Intercultural Competences: Conceptual and Operational Framework. UNESCO. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/bureau-of-strategic-planning/themes/culture-of-peace-and-non-violence. 
  2. ↑ Janet M. Bennett, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence, SAGE Publications, USA, 2015, p. 490
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 Deardorff, D. K. (2009). The Sage handbook of intercultural competence. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Alizadeh, S., & Chavan, M. (2016). Cultural competence dimensions and outcomes: a systematic review of the literature. Health & Social Care In The Community, 24(6), e117-e130. doi:10.1111/hsc.12293
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Liu, Shuang (1 July 2014). "Becoming intercultural: exposure to foreign cultures and intercultural competence". China Media Research 10 (3): 7–15. Gale A381285571. 
  6. ↑ "Cultural Competence In Health and Human Services". https://npin.cdc.gov/pages/cultural-competence. 
  7. ↑ Messner, W., & Schäfer, N. (2012) The ICCA Facilitator's Manual. Intercultural Communication and Collaboration Appraisal. London: GloBus Research, p. 41 (also see: [1]); Spitzberg, B. H. (2000). A Model of Intercultural Communication Competence. In L. A. Samovar, & R. E. Porter, Intercultural Communication - A Reader (pp. 375-87). Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing.
  8. ↑ Ciairano, Silvia; Bonino, S; Miceli, Renato (September 2006). "Cognitive flexibility and social competence from childhood to early adolescence". Cogniţie, Creier, Comportament/Cognition, Brain, Behavior 10 (3): 343–366. 
  9. ↑ Carrard, Valérie; Schmid Mast, Marianne (October 2015). "Physician behavioral adaptability: A model to outstrip a 'one size fits all' approach". Patient Education and Counseling 98 (10): 1243–1247. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2015.07.028. PMID 26277827. https://serval.unil.ch/notice/serval:BIB_DC8888A58BDE. 
  10. ↑ Chung, Rita Chi-Ying; Bemak, Fred (April 2002). "The Relationship of Culture and Empathy in Cross-Cultural Counseling". Journal of Counseling & Development 80 (2): 154–159. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2002.tb00178.x. 
  11. ↑ "Paul B. Pedersen: Award for distinguished contributions to the international advancement of psychology". American Psychologist 65 (8): 839–854. 2010. doi:10.1037/a0020916. PMID 21058802. 
  12. ↑ Fantini, Alvino; Tirmizi, Aqeel (2006). "Appendix F". Exploring and Assessing Intercultural Competence. pp. 87–94. https://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=5&article=1001&context=worldlearning_publications&type=additional. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Abbe et al.
  14. ↑ Caligiuri, Paula M. (2000). "The Big Five Personality Characteristics as Predictors of Expatriate's Desire to Terminate the Assignment and Supervisor-Rated Performance" (in en). Personnel Psychology 53 (1): 67–88. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00194.x. ISSN 1744-6570. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00194.x. 
  15. ↑ "Intercultural Development Inventory". https://idiinventory.com/. 
  16. ↑ "Cultural Intelligence Portal". http://www.cq-portal.com/index.php. 
  17. ↑ Halim, Haslina; Bakar, Hassan Abu; Mohamad, Bahtiar (2014-11-06). "Expatriate Adjustment: Validating Multicultural Personality Trait among Self-initiated Academic Expatriates". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. The International Conference on Communication and Media 2014 (i-COME’14) - Communication, Empowerment and Governance: The 21st Century Enigma 155: 123–129. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.267. 
  18. ↑ Kitsantas, Anastasia (1 September 2004). "Studying abroad: the role of college students' goals on the development of cross-cultural skills and global understanding". College Student Journal 38 (3): 441–453. Gale A123321904. 
  19. ↑ Lessard-Clouston, M. (1997). "Towards an understanding of culture in L2/FL education". Ronko: K.G. Studies in English 25: 131–150.  Republished as: Lessard-Clouston, Michael (May 1997). "Towards an Understanding of Culture in L2/FL Education". The Internet TESL Journal 3 (5). http://iteslj.org/Articles/Lessard-Clouston-Culture.html. 
  20. ↑ Lievens, Filip; Harris, Michael M.; Van Keer, Etienne; Bisqueret, Claire (2003). "Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description interview". Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (3): 476–489. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.476. PMID 12814296. 
  21. ↑ Davis, B. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
  22. ↑ Doll, W. (1993). A post-modern perspective on curriculum. New York: Teacher's College Press.
  23. ↑ Palomba, A. & Bant ntials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  24. ↑ Messner, W. & Schäfer, N. (2012). The ICCA™ Facilitator's Manual London: Createspace.
  25. ↑ "What is The ICCA?". Intercultural Communication and Collaboration Appraisal. GloBus Research Ltd.. http://www.globusresearch.com/intercultural-coaching.aspx. 
  26. ↑ "State Legislation Requires Inclusion of Cultural and Linguistic Competence in Continuing Medical Education, Increasing Acceptance of Their Importance by Educational Programs and Clinicians". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2013-09-25. https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/state-legislation-requires-inclusion-cultural-and-linguistic-competence-continuing-medical. 
  27. ↑ "Clinics Offer Culturally Tailored Diabetes Education and Culturally Appropriate Care to Ethiopian Patients, Leading to More Engagement, Better Outcomes, and Reduction of Health Disparities". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. 2014-01-29. https://innovations.ahrq.gov/profiles/clinics-offer-culturally-tailored-diabetes-education-and-culturally-appropriate-care. 
  28. ↑ Campinha-Bacote, Josepha (July 2002). "The Process of Cultural Competence in the Delivery of Healthcare Services: A Model of Care". Journal of Transcultural Nursing 13 (3): 181–184. doi:10.1177/10459602013003003. PMID 12113146. 
  29. ↑ Selmeski, B.R. (2007). Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development. Kingston: Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society.
  30. ↑ LeVine and Campbell, cited in Lin, Yang; Rancer, Andrew S. (January 2003). "Ethnocentrism, intercultural communication apprehension, intercultural willingness-to-communicate, and intentions to participate in an intercultural dialogue program: Testing a proposed model". Communication Research Reports 20 (1): 62–72. doi:10.1080/08824090309388800. 
  31. ↑ Schoen, Raphael (July 8, 2015). "Intercultural Management in Focus – Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck’s Cultural Value Orientations". https://global-iq.org/publikationen/kluckhohn-strodtbeck/. 
  32. ↑ Schoen, Raphael (July 26, 2015). "Intercultural Management in Focus – Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Dimensions". https://global-iq.org/publikationen/edward-t-hall/. 
  33. ↑ Schoen, Raphael (July 26, 2015). "Intercultural Management in Focus – Geert Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions". https://global-iq.org/publikationen/geert-hofstede/. 
  34. ↑ Schoen, Raphael (July 26, 2015). "Intercultural Management in Focus – Fons Trompenaars’ Seven Dimensions". https://global-iq.org/publikationen/fons-trompenaars/. 
  35. ↑ Schoen, Raphael (July 26, 2015). "The GLOBE Study in Intercultural Management – Global Leadership, Cultural Dimensions & Business Success". https://global-iq.org/publikationen/masters-thesis-managing-international-cooperations/the-globe-study/. 
  36. ↑ 36.00 36.01 36.02 36.03 36.04 36.05 36.06 36.07 36.08 36.09 36.10 36.11 Lustig, M. W., & Koester, J. (2003). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures (4th ed.). Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Luomala, Harri T.; Kumar, Rajesh; Singh, J. D.; Jaakkola, Matti (May 2015). "When an Intercultural Business Negotiation Fails: Comparing the Emotions and Behavioural Tendencies of Individualistic and Collectivistic Negotiators". Group Decision and Negotiation 24 (3): 537–561. doi:10.1007/s10726-014-9420-8. https://publications.aston.ac.uk/id/eprint/26085/1/Comparing_the_emotions_and_behavioural_tendencies_of_individualistic_and_collectivistic_negotiators.pdf. 
  38. ↑ 38.00 38.01 38.02 38.03 38.04 38.05 38.06 38.07 38.08 38.09 38.10 38.11 Maali, Bassam Mohammad; Al-Attar, Ali (2017). "Corporate Disclosure and Cultural Values: A Test for Multinational Corporations". The Journal of Developing Areas 51 (3): 251–265. doi:10.1353/jda.2017.0071. Project MUSE 662351 ProQuest 1912121197. 
  39. ↑ Rathje, Stefanie (15 November 2007). "Intercultural Competence: The Status and Future of a Controversial Concept". Language and Intercultural Communication 7 (4): 254–266. doi:10.2167/laic285.0. 
  40. ↑ Madison, Greg (2006). "Existential Migration". Existential Analysis 17 (2): 238–260. EBSCOhost 22179386. https://www.gregmadison.net/documents/MigrationEA.pdf. 

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