Social:Social cryptomnesia

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Social cryptomnesia is a psychological and sociological idea. It is a cognitive bias experienced by entire cultures following social change. Cryptomnesia refers to an implicit memory phenomenon of an individual’s false belief that their idea is original; however, in reality, they have previously come across the said idea and have forgotten that they did.[1] Cryptomnesia is likely to occur when there is source confusion, the error in identifying a memory’s source,[1] due to high cognitive load at the time when the idea was first considered.[2] This is in line with the Cognitive Load Theory,[3] suggesting that humans have a limited capacity in their working memory, and when it is overloaded or impacted due to factors like stress, individuals can have the tendency to avoid the source of incoming information.[3][4]  

Social cryptomnesia is a failure to remember the origin of a change, in which people know that a change has occurred in society, but forget how this change occurred; that is, the steps that were taken to bring this change about, and who took these steps.[5] This may lead to reduced social credit towards the minorities who made major sacrifices that led to the change in societal values.[6]

Minority marginalization

A minority group is defined as any group that is marginalized in the society they live in due to cultural or physical characteristics. They face unfair treatment and are discriminated against.[7] Minority groups in a society can also be referred to as the “subordinate group”, whereas the majority of people are called the “dominant group”.[8] The Scapegoat Theory suggests that dominant groups can position “unfocused aggression” on minorities.[8]

Throughout history, there have been several notable social movements of minorities leading to revolutions; while the revolutions are remembered by the public, those who have been leading the change have often been forgotten.[6] So, the societal system favors the dominant groups without giving credit to minorities.[6] Social cryptomnesia is described as collective oblivion with social control.[9] It causes the changes done by minority groups to be disregarded, which in turn could lead to further disparity within a society.[9]

Psychological theories

There are different possible theories behind this phenomenon explained through ultimate causes.

Moscovici’s minority influence

Previous research done on group conformity showed how individuals are influenced by the choice of the majority.[10] The study proved that individuals conformed to the answers of the group in public but disregarded them in private.[10] Moscovici argues that behavioral style is the source of influence, especially highlighting that the consistent behavior of minorities can affect the majority of the population.[11][12] He describes four stages of influence:[13]

  1. Revelation: Minority presents their conflicting views to the majority.
  2. Incubation: The majority assesses the arguments of the minority.
  3. Conversion: Those in the majority begin to accept and internalize the arguments of the minority privately.
  4. Innovation: After understanding that others began to share the same views, members of the majority began to publicly acknowledge the views of the minority.

In Moscovici’s four-stage theory, there are two limitations. First of all, it is uncertain how the process from conversion to innovation takes place as at the conversion stage, individuals internalize at a private level. Secondly, the stages end after the fourth one: at this point, the normative position of the majority is eliminated as they have revealed their new views publicly. Historically, it is seen that even with this, the changes that minorities lead can be disregarded. Therefore, Butera et al. (2009)[6] suggests that social cryptomnesia acts as a “fifth stage” of this process.

Social Identity Theory

A related theory could be Social Identity Theory.[14][15] The theory entails how individuals identify with the groups they belong to, which leads to the idea of social categorisation.[15] The groups one belongs to are in-groups, whereas the ones they do not are the out-groups. In order to maintain self-esteem, people perceive their in-groups as superior. This leads to the discrimination of out-groups. Evidence suggests that social identification affects behavior.[16] In terms of decision-making, individuals conform to the “normative leanings'' of their group.[17] Therefore, it could be that the idea of outgroups of minorities do not yield attention to the changes that minorities make, increasing the chance of the process being forgotten. The idea of “groupthink”[18] supports this argument as it refers to group members accepting a certain conclusion that represents a “group consensus”. However, for “groupthink” to occur, there have to be high levels of cohesiveness,[17] which poses a limitation.

Cultural evolution

One of the factors enabling cultural evolution is transmission.[19] From an evolutionary perspective, cultural transmission occurs when individuals pass on information to other generations through social learning.[20] It could be that social cryptomnesia occurs because of “content-biased cultural transmission”.[21] Sperber (1996) describes the situation as “cultural attraction”, which is how cultural representations are distorted to match the existing cognitive biases.[20] As majorities are more prevalent in terms of making change, individuals could be attributing the idea of a change to the dominant group instead of one of the subordinate ones, explaining the functioning of social cryptomnesia. This is in line with Piaget’s schema theory: individuals perceive the world around them and shape incoming knowledge according to their prior beliefs.[22]

Women's rights

The progress made in the first wave of feminism includes healthcare, education, and the right to vote. These rights are considered to be just by the general population, yet the actions taken by the suffragettes (and suffragists) to get to this point are frequently ignored.[6]

Feminist movements are victims of social cryptomnesia.[23] While women’s rights are now acknowledged in most countries, the process of gaining acknowledgement is not recognized by the general population. Furthermore, women are still alienated within society, suggesting that the majority of society has not yielded adequate attention to these changes. Due to this, in various areas of everyday life,[24][25] women face gender-based discrimination and negative stereotypes, while sometimes seen as extremists or radical.[23][26] This may prevent social change from occurring, even when people agree it is necessary.[26]

Social cryptomnesia related to sexism can be reduced with conscientization,[9] which relies on critical reflection on the issue.[27] This technique was used in social and political issues before;[28] thus, the same technique can be adjusted for other minorities in decreasing the effects of social cryptomnesia by conducting further research on it in the future. Nevertheless, since different minorities face varying levels of this phenomenon, this may not be as effective as planned. Additionally, it may be possible to reduce these negative effects of social cryptomnesia by making individuals aware of how social cryptomnesia may contribute to their biases.[9]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "APA Dictionary of Psychology" (in en). https://dictionary.apa.org/. 
  2. ↑ Macrae, C. Neil; Bodenhausen, Galen V.; Calvini, Guglielmo (September 1999). "Contexts of Cryptomnesia: May the Source Be with You" (in en). Social Cognition 17 (3): 273–297. doi:10.1521/soco.1999.17.3.273. ISSN 0278-016X. http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/10.1521/soco.1999.17.3.273. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Sweller, John (2011-01-01), Mestre, Jose P.; Ross, Brian H., eds., "CHAPTER TWO - Cognitive Load Theory" (in en), Psychology of Learning and Motivation (Academic Press) 55: pp. 37–76, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387691-1.00002-8, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123876911000028, retrieved 2023-03-28 
  4. ↑ Vally, Zahir (2021-01-01), Moustafa, Ahmed A., ed., "Chapter 15 - Compliance with health-protective behaviors in relation to COVID-19: The roles of health-related misinformation, perceived vulnerability, and personality traits" (in en), Mental Health Effects of COVID-19 (Academic Press): pp. 263–281, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-824289-6.00001-5, ISBN 978-0-12-824289-6, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128242896000015, retrieved 2023-03-28 
  5. ↑ "Social Change". http://www.psychology4a.com/social-change.html. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Butera, Fabrizio; Levine, John M.; Vernet, Jean-Pierre (August 2009), "Influence without credit: How successful minorities respond to social cryptomnesia" (in en), Coping with Minority Status (Cambridge University Press): pp. 311–332, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511804465.015, ISBN 9780511804465 
  7. ↑ Hacker, Helen Mayer (1951). "Women as a Minority Group". Social Forces 30 (1): 60–69. doi:10.2307/2571742. ISSN 0037-7732. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2571742. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "11.1 Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups - Introduction to Sociology 3e | OpenStax" (in en). https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/11-1-racial-ethnic-and-minority-groups. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Vernet, Jean-Pierre; Vala, Jorge; Amâncio, Ligia; Butera, Fabrizio (2009-01-01). "Conscientization of Social Cryptomnesia Reduces Hostile Sexism and Rejection of Feminists". Social Psychology 40 (3): 130–137. doi:10.1027/1864-9335.40.3.130. ISSN 1864-9335. https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1864-9335.40.3.130. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "APA PsycNet" (in en). https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1952-00803-001. 
  11. ↑ Moscovici, S.; Lage, E.; Naffrechoux, M. (1969). "Influence of a Consistent Minority on the Responses of a Majority in a Color Perception Task". Sociometry 32 (4): 365–380. doi:10.2307/2786541. ISSN 0038-0431. PMID 5373094. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2786541. 
  12. ↑ Moscovici, Serge; Lage, Elisabeth (1976). "Studies in social influence III: Majority versus minority influence in a group" (in en). European Journal of Social Psychology 6 (2): 149–174. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420060202. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.2420060202. 
  13. ↑ Moscovici, Serge (1985), Avermaet, Eddy van; Mugny, Gabriel; Moscovici, Serge, eds., "Innovation and minority influence", Perspectives on Minority Influence, European Studies in Social Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): pp. 9–52, doi:10.1017/cbo9780511897566.003, ISBN 978-0-521-24695-8, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/perspectives-on-minority-influence/innovation-and-minority-influence/47EF6095C16FACBF841589CAB645EF40, retrieved 2023-03-28 
  14. ↑ Tajfel, Henri (June 1979). "Individuals and groups in social psychology*". British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 18 (2): 183–190. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00324.x. ISSN 0007-1293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00324.x. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Turner, J. C.; Brown, R. J.; Tajfel, H. (April 1979). "Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism". European Journal of Social Psychology 9 (2): 187–204. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420090207. ISSN 0046-2772. 
  16. ↑ Drury, John; Cocking, Chris; Reicher, Steve (September 2009). "Everyone for themselves? A comparative study of crowd solidarity among emergency survivors". British Journal of Social Psychology 48 (3): 487–506. doi:10.1348/014466608x357893. ISSN 0144-6665. PMID 18789185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/014466608x357893. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Hogg, Michael A.; Abrams, Dominic; Otten, Sabine; Hinkle, Steve (June 2004). "The Social Identity Perspective: Intergroup Relations, Self-Conception, and Small Groups" (in en). Small Group Research 35 (3): 246–276. doi:10.1177/1046496404263424. ISSN 1046-4964. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1046496404263424. 
  18. ↑ Janis, Irving L. (2010-04-01). "Groupthink". http://apps.olin.wustl.edu/faculty/macdonald/GroupThink.pdf. 
  19. ↑ Mesoudi, Alex; Whiten, Andrew; Laland, Kevin N. (2004). "Perspective:is Human Cultural Evolution Darwinian? Evidence Reviewed from the Perspective of the Origin of Species" (in en). Evolution 58 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1554/03-212. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 15058714. http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1554%2F03-212. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Mesoudi, Alex; Whiten, Andrew (2008-11-12). "The multiple roles of cultural transmission experiments in understanding human cultural evolution" (in en). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363 (1509): 3489–3501. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0129. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 18801720. 
  21. ↑ Berl, Richard E. W.; Samarasinghe, Alarna N.; Roberts, Seán G.; Jordan, Fiona M.; Gavin, Michael C. (2021). "Prestige and content biases together shape the cultural transmission of narratives" (in en). Evolutionary Human Sciences 3: e42. doi:10.1017/ehs.2021.37. ISSN 2513-843X. PMID 37588523. 
  22. ↑ Drescher, Gary L. (1993), Hanson, Stephen José; Remmele, Werner; Rivest, Ronald L., eds., "The schema mechanism" (in en), Machine Learning: From Theory to Applications: Cooperative Research at Siemens and MIT, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer) 661: pp. 125–138, doi:10.1007/3-540-56483-7_27, ISBN 978-3-540-47568-2, https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-56483-7_27, retrieved 2023-03-28 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Vernet, Jean-Pierre; Butera, Fabrizio (March 2005). "Women, women's rights and feminist movements" (in en). Social Science Information 44 (1): 175–188. doi:10.1177/0539018405050465. ISSN 0539-0184. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0539018405050465. 
  24. ↑ McKinley, Sophia K.; Wang, Linda J.; Gartland, Rajshri M.; Westfal, Maggie L.; Costantino, Christina L.; Schwartz, Dana; Merrill, Andrea L.; Petrusa, Emil et al. (November 2019). ""Yes, I'm the Doctor": One Department's Approach to Assessing and Addressing Gender-Based Discrimination in the Modern Medical Training Era" (in en). Academic Medicine 94 (11): 1691–1698. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000002845. ISSN 1040-2446. PMID 31274522. http://journals.lww.com/00001888-201911000-00026. 
  25. ↑ Lambrecht, Anja; Tucker, Catherine E. (2018-03-09) (in en). Algorithmic Bias? An Empirical Study into Apparent Gender-Based Discrimination in the Display of STEM Career Ads. Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2852260. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2852260. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Bashir, Nadia Y.; Lockwood, Penelope; Chasteen, Alison L.; Nadolny, Daniel; Noyes, Indra (2013-09-16). "The ironic impact of activists: Negative stereotypes reduce social change influence" (in en). European Journal of Social Psychology 43 (7): 614–626. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1983. ISSN 0046-2772. 
  27. ↑ Montero, Maritza (2011-11-13), Christie, Daniel J., ed. (in en), Conscientization, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, pp. wbepp060, doi:10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp060, ISBN 978-1-4051-9644-4, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470672532.wbepp060, retrieved 2023-03-28 
  28. ↑ Butera, Fabrizio; Vernet, Jean-Pierre; Vala, Jorge (2017-04-07), Papastamou, Stamos; Gardikiotis, Antonis; Prodromitis, Gerasimos, eds., "Influencing people's (negative) attitudes towards active minorities" (in en), Majority and Minority Influence (Routledge): pp. 158–172, doi:10.4324/9781315666648-8, ISBN 978-1-315-66664-8, https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317355731/chapters/10.4324/9781315666648-8, retrieved 2023-03-28 



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