Social:Teochew dialect
Teochew | |
---|---|
Chaozhou | |
潮州話/潮汕話/潮語 | |
Native to | Chaozhou |
Region | Eastern Guangdong (Chaozhou), Southern Fujian (Zhao'an), Thailand, Southern Vietnam and Cambodia |
Ethnicity | Teochew people |
Sino-Tibetan
| |
Official status | |
Official language in | ![]()
|
Recognised minority language in | ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | (tws is proposed[1]) |
Glottolog | chao1238 [2] |
Linguasphere | 79-AAA-ji |
Teochew dialect |
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Teochew or Chaozhou (Chinese: 潮州話; pinyin: Cháozhōuhuà, Chinese: 潮汕話; pinyin: Cháoshànhuà, Chinese: 潮語; pinyin: Cháoyǔ,[3] Teochew endonym: Diê⁵ziu¹ uê⁷, Shantou dialect: Dio⁵ziu¹ uê⁷) is a dialect of Chaoshan Min, a Southern Min language, that is spoken by the Teochew people in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong and by their diaspora around the world. It is sometimes referred to as Chiuchow, its Cantonese rendering, due to the English romanisation by colonial officials and explorers. It is closely related to some dialects of Hokkien, as it shares some cognates and phonology with Hokkien. The two are mutually unintelligible, but it is possible to understand some words.[4]
Teochew preserves many Old Chinese pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of the other modern varieties of Chinese. As such, Teochew is described as one of the most conservative Chinese languages.[5]
Languages in contact
Mandarin
In China, Teochew children are introduced to Standard Chinese as early as in kindergarten; however, the Teochew language remains the primary medium of instruction. In the early years of primary education, Mandarin becomes the sole language of instruction, but students typically continue to speak to one another in Teochew. Mandarin in widely understood by the Teochew youth, but the elderly may have difficulty with Mandarin due to growing up speaking Teochew.
Chaozhou accent in Mandarin
Native Teochew-speakers find the neutral tone in Mandarin the most difficult tone to master. Teochew has lost the alveolar nasal ending [-n] and so Teochew-speakers often replace it with the velar nasal [-ŋ] when they speak Mandarin. The southern Min dialects all have no front rounded vowel and so a typical Teochew accent supplants the unrounded counterpart [i] for [y]. Teochew, like its ancient ancestor, lacks labio-dentals and so its speakers use [h] or [hu] instead of [f] when they speak Mandarin. Teochew has no retroflex consonants in its northern dialects and so [ts], [tsʰ], [s], and [z] replace [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ] and [ʐ] in the Teochew accent in Mandarin.[original research?]
Hakka
Since Chao'an, Raoping, and Jieyang border the Hakka-speaking region in the north, some people there speak Hakka but they can usually speak Teochew as well. Teochew people have historically had a great deal of contact with the Hakka people, but Hakka has had little, if any, influence on Teochew. Similarly, in Dabu and Fengshun, where the Teochew- and the Hakka-speaking regions meet, Teochew is also spoken, but Hakka remains the primary form of Chinese spoken there.
Cantonese
Because of the strong influence of Hong Kong soap operas, Guangdong provincial television programs and Cantonese pop songs, many young Chaoshan peoples can understand quite a lot of Cantonese even if they cannot speak it with much fluency.[citation needed]
Hmong-Mien languages
In the mountainous area of Fenghuang (鳳凰山), the She language, an endangered Hmong–Mien language, is spoken by the She people, who are an officially recognised non-Han ethnic minority. They predominantly speak Hakka (Shehua) and Teochew; only about 1,000 She still speak their eponymous language.
Thai
The majority of Thai Chinese are Teochew; Teochew is known to have provided a number of loanwords into Thai: Thai language § Vocabulary.
Khmer (Cambodian)
The majority of Chinese Cambodians are Teochew; Teochew is known to have provided a number of loanwords into Khmer.[6]
Cambodian Teochew also incorporates a number of loanwords from Khmer, including a function word pi (Khmer: ពី).[6]
Phonetics and phonology
Consonants
Teochew, like other Southern Min varieties, is one of the few modern Sinitic languages which have voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike Wu and Xiang Chinese, the Teochew voiced stops and fricatives did not evolve from Middle Chinese voiced obstruents, but from nasals. The voiced stops [b] and [ɡ] and also [l] are voicelessly prenasalised [ᵐ̥b], [ᵑ̊ɡ], [ⁿ̥ɺ], respectively. The voiced affricate dz, initial in such words as 字 (dzi˩), 二 (dzi˧˥), 然 (dziaŋ˥), 若 (dziak˦) loses its affricate property with some younger speakers abroad, and is relaxed to [z].
Southern Min dialects and varieties are typified by a lack of labiodentals, as illustrated below:
Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voiced (no frictions) |
nasal | m 毛
b 米 |
n 年
l 來/內 |
ŋ 雅
g 鵝/牙 |
|
plosive or lateral | |||||
Voiceless stops | aspirated | pʰ 皮 | tʰ 台 | kʰ 可 | |
plain | p 比 | t 都 | k 歌 | ʔ | |
Voiceless affricates | aspirated | tsʰ 菜/樹 | |||
plain | ts 書/指/食 | ||||
Fricatives | s 士/速 | h 海/系 | |||
(d)z 爾/貳 |
Syllables
Syllables in Teochew contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a vowel, but can also be occupied by a syllabic consonant like [ŋ], and a final consonant. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.
Onsets
All the consonants except for the glottal stop ʔ shown in the consonants chart above can act as the onset of a syllable; however, the onset position is not obligatorily occupied.
Finals
Teochew finals consist maximally of a medial, nucleus and coda. The medial can be i or u, the nucleus can be a monophthong or diphthong, and the coda can be a nasal or a stop. A syllable must consist minimally of a vowel nucleus or syllabic nasal.
Nucleus | -a- | -e̞- | -o̞- | -ə- | -i- | -u- | -ai- | -au- | -oi- | -ou- | -ui- | -iu- | ∅- | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medial | ∅- | i- | u- | ∅- | u- | ∅- | i- | ∅- | ∅- | ∅- | ∅- | u- | ∅- | ∅- | ∅- | i- | ∅- | ∅- | ||
Coda | -∅ | a | ia | ua | e | ue | o | io | ɨ | i | u | ai | uai | au | ou | iou | ui | iu | ||
-◌̃ | ã | ĩã | ũã | ẽ | ũẽ | ĩõ | ɨ̃ | ĩ | ãĩ | ũãĩ | ãũ | õĩ | õũ | ũĩ | ĩũ | |||||
-ʔ | aʔ | iaʔ | uaʔ | eʔ | ueʔ | oʔ | ioʔ | iʔ | auʔ | oiʔ | ||||||||||
-m | am | iam | uam | im | m̩ | |||||||||||||||
-ŋ | aŋ | iaŋ | uaŋ | eŋ | oŋ | ioŋ | əŋ | iŋ | uŋ | ŋ̩ | ||||||||||
-p | ap | iap | uap | ip | ||||||||||||||||
-k | ak | iak | uak | ek | ok | iok | ək | ik | uk |
Tones
Citation tones
Teochew, like other Chinese varieties, is a tonal language. Like other Southern Min varieties, Teochew has preserved the Middle Chinese tone system of six distinct tones in syllables which do not end in a stop consonant and two tones in syllables which do end in a stop consonant (the checked tones). In line with other Chinese varieties, the tones are numbered from 1 through 8, with 4 and 8 being the checked tones.
Depending on the position of a word in a phrase, the tones can change and adopt extensive tone sandhi.
Teochew tones Tone
numberTone name Pitch
contourDescription Sandhi 1 yin level (陰平) ˧ (3) mid 1 2 yin rising (陰上) ˥˨ (52) falling 6 3 yin departing (陰去) ˨˩˧ (213) low rising 2 or 5 4 yin entering (陰入) ˨̚ (2) low checked 8 5 yang level (陽平) ˥ (5) high 7 6 yang rising (陽上) ˧˥ (35) high rising 7 7 yang departing (陽去) ˩ (1) low 7 8 yang entering (陽入) ˦̚ (4) high checked 4
As with sandhi in other Min Nan dialects, the checked tones interchange. The yang tones all become low. Sandhi is not accounted for in the description below.
Grammar
The grammar of Teochew is similar to other Min languages, as well as some southern varieties of Chinese, especially with Hakka, Yue and Wu. The sequence 'subject–verb–object' is typical, like Standard Mandarin, although the 'subject–object–verb' form is also possible using particles.
Morphology
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Chinese languages, do not show case marking, therefore 我 [ua] means both I and me and 伊人 [iŋ] means they and them. The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have a distinction between an inclusive and exclusive we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun 俺 [naŋ] would be used, otherwise 阮 [ŋ] is employed. Outside Southern Min varieties like Teochew, no other southern Chinese variety has this distinction.[citation needed]
Singular | Plural | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st person | 我 ua˥˨ | I / me | Inclusive | 俺 naŋ˥˨ | we / us |
Exclusive | 阮 uaŋ˥˨ (uŋ˥˨ / ŋ˥˨) | we / us | |||
2nd person | 汝 lɨ˥˨ | you | 恁 niŋ˥˨ | you (plural) | |
3rd person | 伊 i˧ | he/she/it/him/her | 伊儂 iŋ˧ (i˧ naŋ˥) | they/them |
Possessive pronouns
Teochew does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the genitive or possessive marker 個 [kai5] to their respective personal pronouns, as summarised below:
Singular | Plural | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st person | 我個 ua˥˨ kai˥ | my / mine | Inclusive | 俺個 naŋ˥˨ kai˥ | our / ours |
Exclusive | 阮個 uaŋ˥˨ (uŋ˥˨ / ŋ˥˨) kai˥ | ours / ours | |||
2nd person | 汝個 lɨ˥˨ kai˥ | your / yours | 恁個 niŋ˥˨ kai˥ | your / yours (plural) | |
3rd person | 伊個 i˧ kai˥ | his / his; her / hers; its / its | 伊儂個 iŋ˧ (i˧ naŋ˥) kai˥ | their / theirs |
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
As 個 [kai˥] is the generic measure word, it may be replaced by other more appropriate classifiers:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Demonstrative pronouns
Teochew has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals, as summarised in the following chart:
Proximal | Distal | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
General | Singular | 只個 [tsi˥˨ kai˥] | this | 許個 [hɨ˥˨ kai˥] | that |
Plural | 只撮 [tsi˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦] | these | 許撮 [hɨ˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦] | those | |
Spatial | 只塊 [tsi˥˨ ko˨˩˧] | here | 許塊 [hɨ˥˨ ko˨˩˧] | there | |
只內 [tsi˥˨ lai˧˥] | inside | 許內 [hɨ˥˨ lai˧˥] | inside | ||
只口 [tsi˥˨ kʰau˩] | outside | 許口 [hɨ˥˨ kʰau˩] | outside | ||
Temporal | 只陣 / 當 [tsi˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / təŋ˨˩˧] | now; recently | 許陣 / 當 [hɨ˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / təŋ˨˩˧] | then | |
Adverbial | 這生 [tse˥˨ sẽ˧] | like this | 向生 [hia˥˨ sẽ˧] | like that | |
Degree | 只樣 [tsĩõ˨˩˧] | this | 向樣 [hĩõ˨˩˧] | that | |
Type | 者個 [tsia˥˨ kai˥] | this kind | 向個 [hia˥˨ kai˥] | that kind |
Interrogative pronouns
who / whom | 值珍 [ti tiaŋ] | |
---|---|---|
值儂 [ti naŋ] | ||
what | 乜個 [miʔ kai] | |
what (kind of) + noun | 乜 + N [miʔ] | |
which | 值 + NUM + CL + (N) [ti] | |
值個 [ti kai] | ||
where | 值塊 [ti ko] | |
when | 珍時 [tiaŋ si] | |
how | manner | 怎呢 [tso ni] |
state | 在些(樣) [tsai sẽ ĩõ] | |
乜些樣 [miʔ sẽ ĩõ] | ||
什乜樣 [si miʔ ĩõ] | ||
how many | 幾 + CL + N [kui] | |
若多 + (CL) + (N) [dzieʔ tsoi] | ||
how much | 若多 [dzieʔ tsoi] | |
why | 怎呢 [tso ni] |
Numerals
Pronunciation | Financial | Normal | Value | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
liŋ5 | 零 | 〇 | 0 | 〇 is an informal way to represent zero, but 零 is more commonly used, especially in schools. also 空 [kang3] |
tsek8 | 壹 | 一 | 1 | also 蜀 [tsek8] (original character) also 弌 (obsolete) also [ik4] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 二十一 [dzi6 tsap8 ik4] or days of a month e.g. 一號 [ik4 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第一 [tõĩ6 ik4] also 么(T) or 幺(S) [iou1] when used in phone numbers etc. |
no6 | 兩(T) | 二 | 2 | also 弍 (obsolete) also 貳(T) also [dzi6] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 三十二 [sã1 tsap8 dzi6] or days of a month e.g. 二號 [dzi6 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第二 [tõĩ6 dzi6]. |
sã1 | 叄(T) | 三 | 3 | also 弎 (obsolete) also 參 [sã1]. |
si3 | 肆 | 四 | 4 | |
ŋou6 | 伍 | 五 | 5 | |
lak8 | 陸 | 六 | 6 | |
tsʰik4 | 柒 | 七 | 7 | |
poiʔ4 | 捌 | 八 | 8 | |
kau2 | 玖 | 九 | 9 | |
tsap8 | 拾 | 十 | 10 | Although some people use 什, It is not acceptable because it can be written over into 伍. |
Note: (T): Traditional characters; (S): Simplified characters.
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 [tõĩ˧˥] in front of a cardinal number.
Voice
In Teochew passive construction, the agent phrase by somebody always has to be present, and is introduced by either 乞 [kʰoiʔ˦] (some speakers use [kʰəʔ] or [kʰiəʔ] instead) or 分 [puŋ˧], even though it is in fact a zero or indefinite agent as in:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
While in Mandarin one can have the agent introducer 被; bèi or 給; gěi alone without the agent itself, it is not grammatical to say
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
- cf. Mandarin 杯子給打破了; bēizi gěi dǎ pòle)
Instead, we have to say:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Even though this 儂 [naŋ˥] is unknown.
The agent phrase 分儂 [puŋ˧ naŋ˥] always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the auxiliary and the past participle like in some European languages (e.g. German, Dutch)
Comparison
Comparative construction with two or more nouns
Teochew uses the construction "X ADJ 過 [kue˨˩˧] Y", which is believed to have evolved from the Old Chinese "X ADJ 于 (yú) Y" structure[citation needed] to express the idea of comparison:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Cantonese uses the same construction:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
However, due to modern influences from Mandarin, the Mandarin structure "X 比 Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
- cf. Mandarin 她比你漂亮; tā bǐ nǐ piàoliang
Comparative construction with only one noun
The 過- or 比-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:
- * 伊雅過 (?)
Teochew is different from English, where the second noun being compared can be left out ("Tatyana is more beautiful (than Lisa)". In cases like this, the 夭-construction must be used instead:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Teochew and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).
- Mandarin
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
- Cantonese
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. 贏 [ĩã5] "better" and 輸 [su1] "worse". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the 過-structure:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Note the use of the adverbial 好多 [hoʔ2 tsoi7] at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.
Equal construction
In Teochew, the idea of equality is expressed with the word 平 [pẽ5] or 平樣 [pẽ5 ĩõ7]:
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Superlative construction
To express the superlative, Teochew uses the adverb 上 [siaŋ5] or 上頂 [siaŋ5 teŋ2]. 上頂 is usually used with a complimentary connotation.
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Teochew shares a lot of similarities with Cantonese because of their continuous contact with each other.[ambiguous] Like Cantonese, Teochew has a great deal of monosyllabic words.[7][8] However, ever since the standardisation of Modern Standard Chinese, Teochew has absorbed a lot of Putonghua vocabulary, which is predominantly polysyllabic.[citation needed] Also, Teochew varieties in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia have also borrowed extensively from Malay.[citation needed]
Archaic vocabulary
Teochew and other Southern Min varieties, such as Hokkien, preserve a good deal of Old Chinese vocabulary, such as 目 [mak] eye (Chinese: 眼睛; pinyin: yǎnjīng, Hokkien: 目 ba̍k), 灱 [ta] dry (Chinese: 乾; pinyin: gān, Hokkien: 焦 ta), and 囥 [kʰəŋ] hide (cf. Chinese: 藏; pinyin: cáng; Hokkien: 囥 khǹg).
Romanisation
Teochew was romanised by the Provincial Education Department of Guangdong in 1960 to aid linguistic studies and the publication of dictionaries, although Pe̍h-ūe-jī can also be used because Christian missionaries invented it for the transcription of varieties of Southern Min.
Initials
Initial consonants of Teochew, are represented in the Guangdong Romanization system as: B, BH, C, D, G, GH, H, K, L, M, N, NG, P, R, S, T, and Z.
Examples:
- B [p] - bag (北 north)
- Bh [b]- bhê (馬 horse)
- C [tsʰ] - cên (青 green), cǔi (嘴 mouth), ciên (槍 gun)
- D [t] - diê (潮 tide)
- G [k] - giê (橋 bridge)
- GH [g] - gho (鵝 goose)
- H [h] - hung (雲 cloud)
- K [kʰ] - ke (去 to go)
- L [l] - lag (六 six)
- M [m] - mêng (明 bright)
- N [n] - nang (人 person)
- NG [ŋ] - ngou (五 five)
- P [pʰ] - peng (平 peace)
- R [(d)z] - riêg/ruah (熱 hot)
- S [s] - sên (生 to be born)
- T [tʰ] - tin (天 sky)
- Z [ts] - ziu (州 region/state)
Finals
Vowels
Vowels and vowel combinations in the Teochew dialect include: A, E, Ê, I, O, U, AI, AO, IA, IAO, IO, IU, OI, OU, UA, UAI, UE, and UI.
Examples:
- A - ma (媽 mother)
- E - de (箸 chopsticks)
- Ê - sên (生 to be born)
- I - bhi (味 smell/taste)
- O - to (桃 peach)
- U - ghu (牛 cow)
Many words in Teochew are nasalized. This is represented by the letter "n" in the Guangdong Pengim system.
Example (nasalized):
- suan (山 mountain)
- cên (青 green)
Ending
Ending consonants in Teochew include M and NG as well as the stops discussed below.
Examples:
- M - iam (鹽 salt)
- NG - bhuang (萬 ten thousand)
Teochew retains many consonant stops lost in Mandarin. These stops include a labial stop: "b"; velar stop: "g"; and glottal stop: "h".
Examples:
- B - zab (十 ten)
- G - hog (福 happiness)
- H - tih (鐵 iron)
See also
- Southern Min
- Hokkien
- Amoy Hokkien
- Taiwanese Hokkien
- Languages of China
- List of Chinese dialects
- Thai Chinese
- Chinese in Singapore
- Malaysian Chinese
- Indonesian Chinese
References
- ↑ "Change Request Documentation: 2021-045". 31 August 2021. https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2021-045.
- ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Chaozhou". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/chao1238.
- ↑ "學潮語,埋下愛的種子". Sin Chew. 2021-01-09. https://www.sinchew.com.my/pad/con/content_2101420.html.
- ↑ "My China Roots". https://www.mychinaroots.com/.
- ↑ Yap, Foong Ha; Grunow-Hårsta, Karen; Wrona, Janick, eds (2011). Nominalization in Asian Languages: Diachronic and typological perspectives. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 11. ISBN 978-9027206770. https://books.google.com/books?id=o-Fiq1Ct4OIC&q=chaozhou+most+conservative+chinese+dialect&pg=PA111.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 McFarland, Joanna Rose (2021-09-01). "Language Contact and Lexical Changes in Khmer and Teochew in Cambodia and Beyond" (in en). Sinophone Southeast Asia. Brill. pp. 91–128. doi:10.1163/9789004473263_005. ISBN 978-90-04-47326-3. https://brill.com/view/book/9789004473263/BP000016.xml.
- ↑ Li, David C. S.; Wong, Cathy S. P.; Leung, Wai Mun; Wong, Sam T. S. (2016-01-01). "Facilitation of transference: The case of monosyllabic salience in Hong Kong Cantonese" (in en). Linguistics 54 (1): 1–58. doi:10.1515/ling-2015-0037. ISSN 1613-396X. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/ling-2015-0037/html?lang=en.
- ↑ Zhang, Xi; Cross, Ian (2021-08-08). "Analysing the relationship between tone and melody in Chaozhou songs". Journal of New Music Research 50 (4): 299–311. doi:10.1080/09298215.2021.1974490. ISSN 0929-8215. https://doi.org/10.1080/09298215.2021.1974490.
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- Li, Yongming. (1959). Chaozhou fang yan. (Chaozhou dialect) Beijing: Zhonghua. (李永明, 1959. 潮州方言. 北京: 中華)
- Lin, Lun Lun. (1997). Xin bian Chaozhou yin zi dian. (New Chaozhou pronunciation dictionary) Shantou, China: Shantou da xue chu ban she. (林倫倫, 1997. 新編潮州音字典. 汕頭: 汕頭大學出版社) ISBN:7-81036-189-9
- Norman, Jerry. [1988] (2002). Chinese. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN:0-521-29653-6
- Ramsey, S. Robert (1986). Languages of China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press ISBN:0-691-06694-9
- Xu, Huiling (2007). Aspects of Chaoshan grammar: A synchronic description of the Jieyang dialect. Monograph Series Journal of Chinese Linguistics 22
- Yap, FoongHa; Grunow-Hårsta, Karen; Wrona, Janick (ed.) (2011). "Nominalization in Asian Languages: Diachronic and typological perspectives". Hong Kong Polytechnic University /Oxford University : John Benjamins Publishing Company ISBN:978-9027206770
Further reading
- Josiah Goddard (1883). A Chinese and English vocabulary: in the Tie-chiu dialect (2 ed.). Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. pp. 237. https://archive.org/details/achineseandengl00goddgoog. Retrieved 10 February 2012. (the New York Public Library) (digitized April 2, 2008)
- Kū-ieh sàn-bú-zṳ́ ē-kńg tshûan-tsṳ e̍k-tsò tiê-chiu pe̍h-ūe. Swatow: printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society at the English Presbyterian Mission Press. 1898. https://books.google.com/books?id=oBITAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 10 February 2012. (11 Samuel. (Tie-chiu dialect.)) (Harvard University) (digitized December 17, 2007)
External links
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Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Teochew phrasebook. |
- 1883 American Presbyterian mission press – "A pronouncing and defining dictionary of the Swatow dialect, arranged according to syllables and tones" – by Fielde, Adele Marion (in English)Link to download(3,022 × 4,010 pixels, file size: 42.21 MB, MIME type: image/vnd.djvu, 648 pages)
- Database of Pronunciations of Chinese Dialects (in English, Chinese and Japanese)
- Teochew People - Teochew dialect (in Chinese)
- Glossika - Chinese Languages and Dialects
- Mogher (in Chinese, English and French)
- Omniglot
- Shantou University Chaozhou Studies Resources (in Chinese)
- Teochew Web (in Chinese and English)
- Tonal harmony and register contour in Chaozhou