View source for Earth:Timeline of volcanism on Earth

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This '''timeline of volcanism on Earth''' includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the [[Earth:Volcanic explosivity index|Volcanic explosivity index]] (VEI) or equivalent [[Chemistry:Sulfur dioxide|sulfur dioxide]] emission during the [[Earth:Quaternary|Quaternary]] period (from 2.58 [[Year#Mya|Mya]] to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.

Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a [[Earth:Volcanic winter|volcanic winter]]—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption.<ref name="ward2009">{{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Peter L. |date=2 April 2009 |title=Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways |journal=[[Physics:Thin Solid Films|Thin Solid Films]] |volume=517 |issue=11 |pages=3188–3203 |bibcode=2009TSF...517.3188W |doi=10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005}}</ref><ref name=robock2009>{{cite journal |last1=Robock |first1=A. |author2=C.M. Ammann |author3=L. Oman |author4=D. Shindell |author5=S. Levis |author6=G. Stenchikov |title=Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ~74k BP produce widespread glaciation? |journal=[[Earth:Journal of Geophysical Research|Journal of Geophysical Research]] |year=2009 |volume=114 |issue=D10 |pages=D10107 |doi=10.1029/2008JD011652 |bibcode=2009JGRD..11410107R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Before the present [[Earth:Holocene|Holocene]] epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the [[Earth:Neogene|Neogene]] period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the [[Earth:Paleogene|Paleogene]] period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the [[Earth:Yellowstone hotspot|Yellowstone hotspot]], Santorini caldera, and the [[Earth:Taupō Volcanic Zone|Taupō Volcanic Zone]].

Active volcanoes such as [[Earth:Stromboli|Stromboli]], [[Earth:Mount Etna|Mount Etna]] and [[Earth:Kīlauea|Kīlauea]] do not appear on this list, but some [[Earth:Back-arc basin|back-arc basin]] volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], appear often too.

In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/volcanoes/holocene/main/main.htm |title=Holocene Kamchatka volcanoes |publisher=Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences |access-date=2018-04-30}}</ref> which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.<ref name="wardtable2009" />

==Large Quaternary eruptions==
{{main|Earth:List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions}}
The [[Earth:Holocene|Holocene]] epoch begins 11,700 years [[Earth:Before Present|BP]] (10,000 [[Physics:Radiocarbon dating|<sup>14</sup>C years]] ago).<ref>{{cite web |title=International Stratigraphic Chart |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ISChart2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229003212/http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ISChart2009.pdf |archive-date=2009-12-29 |accessdate=2009-12-23 |publisher=[[Organization:International Commission on Stratigraphy|International Commission on Stratigraphy]]}}</ref>

===1000–2000 AD ===
*[[Earth:Mount Pinatubo|Pinatubo]], island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|6|to|16|km3|cumi|1|abbr=on}} of tephra;<ref name="largeeruptions">http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117212357/http://volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm |date=2012-01-17 }} Large Holocene Eruptions</ref> an estimated {{convert|20000000|t|ST|lk=on}} of {{chem|S|O|2|link=Sulfur dioxide}} were emitted<ref name="robock2009"/>
*[[Earth:Novarupta|Novarupta]], Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|13|to|15|km3|cumi|1|abbr=on}} of lava<ref name="Brantley1999">{{cite book
*[[Earth:Santa María (volcano)|Santa Maria]], Guatemala; 1902, October 24; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|20|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref>{{cite gvp
  | vn = 342030
  | title = Santa Maria
  | accessdate = 2010-03-19 }}</ref>
*Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|21|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref name="scholastic">{{cite magazine|url=http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/wwatch/volcanoes/witnesses.htm|title=The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883|author=Hopkinson, Deborah|magazine=Storyworks|location=New York|date=January 2004|volume=11|issue=4|page=8|via=Scholastic.com}}</ref>
*Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI&nbsp;7; {{convert|160-213|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra;<ref>http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/bibl/vulk/kuozero/Pon-KurileLake.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref><ref name="largeeruptions"/> an estimated {{convert|200000000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of {{chem|SO|2}} were emitted, produced the "[[Earth:Year Without a Summer|Year Without a Summer]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlham.edu/~ethribe/web/tambora.htm|title=Tambora|website=www.earlham.edu}}</ref>
* [[Earth:1808 mystery eruption|1808 mystery eruption]], VEI&nbsp;6–7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.bris.ac.uk/news/2014/september/unknown-eruption.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210015142/http://www.bris.ac.uk/news/2014/september/unknown-eruption.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 December 2014|title=First eyewitness accounts of mystery volcanic eruption|author=University of Bristol|date= 19 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091205105844.htm|title=Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810–1819}}</ref><ref name="ClimPast1">{{cite journal|last1=Guevara-Murua|first1=A.|last2=Williams|first2=C. A.|last3=Hendy|first3=E. J.|last4=Rust|first4=A. C.|last5=Cashman|first5=K. V.|title=Observations of a stratospheric aerosol veil from a tropical volcanic eruption in December 1808: is this the "Unknown" ~1809 eruption?|journal=Climate of the Past Discussions|volume=10|issue=2|year=2014|pages=1901–1932|issn=1814-9359|doi=10.5194/cpd-10-1901-2014|bibcode=2014CliPa..10.1707G|url=https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/ws/files/124748345/cp_10_1707_2014.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Grímsvötn|Grímsvötn]], Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; [[Earth:Laki|Laki]]; 1783–1784; VEI&nbsp;2; {{convert|14|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of lava, an estimated {{convert|120000000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of {{chem|S|O|2}} were emitted, produced a [[Earth:Volcanic winter|Volcanic winter]], 1783, on the North Hemisphere.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qjlw|title=BBC Two - Timewatch|website=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=373010|title = Global Volcanism Program &#124; Grímsvötn}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Long Island (Papua New Guinea)|Long Island (Papua New Guinea)]], Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|30|km3|cumi|1|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, February 19; VEI 6; {{convert|30|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref name=gvp>{{cite gvp|vn=354030|name=Huaynaputina|accessdate=2008-12-29}}</ref>
*Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|14|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*[[Earth:Bárðarbunga|Bárðarbunga]], Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|10|km3}} of tephra<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*[[Earth:1465 mystery eruption|1465 mystery eruption]] "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant [[Earth:Ice core|ice core]] records and atmospheric events around the time of King Alfonso II of Naples's wedding; it is believed to have been VEI&nbsp;7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170630-the-massive-volcano-that-scientists-cant-find|title = The massive volcano that scientists can't find}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/14139518|title = The day the sun turned blue. A volcanic eruption in the early 1460s and its putative climatic impact – a globally perceived volcanic disaster in the Late Middle Ages?|last1 = Bauch|first1 = Martin|journal = Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context| year=2017 |page = 107| doi=10.1007/978-3-319-49163-9_6 }}</ref>
*1452/1453 mystery eruption in the New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant [[Earth:Ice core|ice core]] records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; {{convert|36|to|96|km3|cumi|1|abbr=on}} of tephra; {{convert|175000000|-|700000000|t|ST|abbr=on}} of [[Chemistry:Sulfuric acid|sulfuric acid]]<ref>{{cite journal|last= Nemeth
 |first= Karoly |author2=Shane J. Cronin |author3=James D.L. White   |year= 2007 |title= Kuwae caldera and climate confusion |journal= The Open Geology Journal  |volume= 1 |issue= 5 |pages= 7–11 |doi = 10.2174/1874262900701010007|bibcode = 2007OGJ.....1....7N |doi-access= free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gao |first=Chaochao |author2=A. Robock |author3=S. Self |author4=J. B. Witter |author5=J. P. Steffenson |author6=H. B. Clausen |author7=M.-L. Siggaard-Andersen |author8=S. Johnsen |author9=P. A. Mayewski |author10=C. Ammann |date=27 June 2006 |title=The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae eruption signal derived from multiple ice core records: Greatest volcanic sulfate event of the past 700 years |journal=[[Earth:Journal of Geophysical Research|Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=111 |issue=D12 |pages=D12107 |doi=10.1029/2005JD006710 |bibcode=2006JGRD..11112107G |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Witter
 |first= J.B. |author2=Self S.   |date= January 2007 |title= The Kuwae (Vanuatu) eruption of AD 1452: potential magnitude and volatile release |journal= [[Earth:Bulletin of Volcanology|Bulletin of Volcanology]] |volume= 69 |issue= 3 |pages= 301–318 |doi = 10.1007/s00445-006-0075-4|bibcode = 2007BVol...69..301W |s2cid= 129403009 }}
</ref><!-- linked to the Fall of Constantinople -->
*1280(?) in [[Earth:Quilotoa|Quilotoa]], Ecuador; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|21|km3|abbr=on}} of tephra<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*[[Earth:1257 Samalas eruption|1257 Samalas eruption]], Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic [[Earth:Ice core|Ice core]]s provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lavigne|first=Franck|title=Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia|volume =   110|issue =   42| pages = 16742–7| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=4 September 2013| doi=10.1073/pnas.1307520110 | pmid=24082132 | pmc=3801080|bibcode=2013PNAS..11016742L|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24332239|title=Mystery 13th Century eruption traced to Lombok, Indonesia|work=BBC News|date=30 September 2013|accessdate=1 October 2013}}</ref>

===Overview of Common Era===

This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius.  Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Caldera/ Eruption name!!Volcanic arc/ belt<BR />or Subregion or Hotspot!!VEI!!class="unsortable"|Date!!class="unsortable"|Known/proposed consequences
|-
|[[Earth:Mount Pinatubo|Mount Pinatubo]]||Luzon Volcanic Arc||6||1991, Jun 15|| Global temperature fell by 0.4&nbsp;°C
|-
|[[Earth:Novarupta|Novarupta]]||[[Earth:Aleutian Range|Aleutian Range]]||6||1912, Jun 6||
|-
|[[Earth:Santa María (volcano)|Santa María]]||[[Earth:Central America Volcanic Arc|Central America Volcanic Arc]]||6||1902, Oct 24||
|-
|Krakatoa||[[Earth:Sunda Arc|Sunda Arc]]||6||1883, Aug 26–27||At least [[Earth:1883 eruption of Krakatoa|30,000 dead]]
|-
|Mount Tambora||Lesser Sunda Islands||7||1815, Apr 10||[[Earth:Year Without a Summer|Year Without a Summer]] (1816)
|-
|[[Earth:1808 mystery eruption|1808 mystery eruption]]||Southwestern [[Earth:Pacific Ocean|Pacific Ocean]] ||6||1808, Dec||A sulfate spike in ice cores
|-
|[[Earth:Long Island (Papua New Guinea)|Long Island (Papua New Guinea)]]||Bismarck Volcanic Arc||6||1660||
|-
|Huaynaputina||Andes, Central Volcanic Zone||6||1600, Feb 19||Russian famine of 1601–1603
|-
|Billy Mitchell||Bougainville & Solomon Is.||6||1580||
|-
|[[Earth:Bárðarbunga|Bárðarbunga]]||Iceland||6||1477||
|-
|[[Earth:1458 mystery eruption|1458 mystery eruption]]||unknown||6-7||1458||Possibly larger than Mount Tambora's
|-
|1452/1453 mystery eruption||Unknown||6-7||1452–53||2nd pulse<ref>Miller ''et al''. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" ''Geophysical Research Letters'' '''39''', January 31</ref> of Little Ice Age?
|-
|[[Earth:Quilotoa|Quilotoa]]||Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone||6||1280||
|-
|[[Earth:Lake Segara Anak|Samalas]] ([[Earth:Mount Rinjani|Mount Rinjani]])||Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands||7||1257||[[Earth:1257 Samalas eruption|1257 Samalas eruption]], 1st pulse<ref>{{cite journal|first=Franck |last=Lavigne |year=2013 |title=Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia |journal=PNAS |volume=110 |issue=42 |pages=16742–16747 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1307520110 |display-authors=0 |pmid=24082132 |pmc=3801080|bibcode=2013PNAS..11016742L |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="scott">[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/01/120130131509.htm Was the Little Ice Age Triggered by Massive Volcanic Eruptions?]
ScienceDaily, 30 January 2012 (accessed 21 May 2012)</ref> of [[Earth:Little Ice Age#Dating|Little Ice Age]]? (c.1250)
|-
|Baekdu Mountain/Tianchi eruption||{{wipe|China}}/ North Korea border||7||946, Nov-947 ||Limited regional climatic effects.<ref name="Jiandong">Jiandong Xu et al. 2013. "Climatic impact of the Millennium eruption of Changbaishan volcano
in China: New insights from high-precision radiocarbon
wiggle-match dating" ''Geophysical Research Letters'' '''40''' http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:162055/CONTENT/XU_et_al_2013_GRL.pdf</ref>
|-
|Ceboruco||[[Earth:Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt|Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]]||6||930||
|-
|Dakataua||Bismarck Volcanic Arc||6||800||
|-
|Pago||Bismarck Volcanic Arc||6||710||
|-
|[[Earth:Mount Churchill|Mount Churchill]]||eastern Alaska, USA||6||700||
|-
|[[Earth:Rabaul caldera|Rabaul caldera]]||Bismarck Volcanic Arc||6||683 (est.)||
|-
|[[Earth:Volcanic winter of 536|Volcanic winter of 536]]||Krakatoa||6-7||535||
|-
|[[Earth:Lake Ilopango|Ilopango]]||Central America Volcanic Arc||6||450||
|-
|[[Earth:Ksudach|Ksudach]]||Kamchatka Peninsula||6||240||
|-
|Taupō Caldera/[[Earth:Hatepe eruption|Hatepe eruption]]||[[Earth:Taupō Volcano|Taupō Volcano]]||7||[[Earth:Hatepe eruption#Dating the eruption|180 or 230]]||[[Earth:Hatepe eruption|Affected skies]] over Rome and China
|-
|[[Earth:Mount Churchill|Mount Churchill]]||eastern [[Earth:Alaska|Alaska]], USA||6||60||
|-
|[[Earth:Ambrym|Ambrym]]||New Hebrides Arc||6||50||
|-
|[[Earth:Apoyeque|Apoyeque]]||[[Earth:Central America Volcanic Arc|Central America Volcanic Arc]] ||6||50 BC (±100)||
|-
|}

Note:
Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Ōkataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, and Tarawera volcanic complex all had the same magma source in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field all had Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.

===Earlier Quaternary eruptions===
2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the [[Earth:Quaternary|Quaternary]] period and [[Earth:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] epoch begin.

*Eifel hotspot, [[Earth:Laacher See|Laacher See]], Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9&nbsp;ka; VEI&nbsp;6; {{convert|6|km3|cumi|1|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref>van den Bogaard, P (1995). [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995E&PSL.133..163V <sup>40</sup>Ar/(<sup>39</sup>Ar) ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.013|title=Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany)|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=270|issue=1–2|pages=196–214|year=2008|last1=De Klerk|first1=Pim|last2=Janke|first2=Wolfgang|last3=Kühn|first3=Peter|last4=Theuerkauf|first4=Martin|bibcode=2008PPP...270..196D}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Baales, Michael |author2=Jöris, Olaf |author3=Street, Martin |author4=Bittmann, Felix |author5=Weninger, Bernhard |author6=Wiethold, Julian |date=November 2002 |title=Impact of the Late Glacial Eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, Central Rhineland, Germany |journal= Quaternary Research |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=273–288 |doi=10.1006/qres.2002.2379 |bibcode = 2002QuRes..58..273B |s2cid=53973827 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/0,1518,466051,00.html ''Forscher warnen vor Vulkan-Gefahr in der Eifel''. Spiegel Online, 13. February 2007.] Retrieved January 11, 2008</ref>
*Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18&nbsp;km), Aleutian Range, 17&nbsp;ka ±5; more than {{convert|50|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Lake Barrine|Lake Barrine]], Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17&nbsp;ka.
*[[Earth:Menengai|Menengai]], East African Rift, Kenya; 29&nbsp;ka<ref name="largeeruptions" />
*[[Earth:Morne Diablotins|Morne Diablotins]], Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI&nbsp;6; 30&nbsp;ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carey |first=Steven N. |author2=Sigurdsson, Haraldur  |year=1980 |title=The Roseau Ash: Deep-sea Tephra Deposits from a Major Eruption on Dominica, Lesser Antilles Arc |journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=67–86 |doi=10.1016/0377-0273(80)90020-7 |bibcode = 1980JVGR....7...67C }}</ref>
*[[Earth:Phlegraean Fields|Phlegraean Fields]], Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka ([[Earth:Campanian Ignimbrite eruption|Campanian Ignimbrite eruption]]).
*[[Earth:Kurile Lake|Kurile Lake]], Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5&nbsp;ka; VEI&nbsp;7<ref name="largeeruptions" />
*[[Earth:Lake Maninjau|Maninjau Caldera]] (size: 20 x 8&nbsp;km), West Sumatra; VEI&nbsp;7; around 52&nbsp;ka; {{convert|220|to|250|km3|cumi|1|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="alloway2004">{{cite journal  | last = Alloway  | first = Brent V.  |author2=Agung Pribadi |author3=John A. Westgate |author4=Michael Bird |author5=L. Keith Fifield |author6=Alan Hogg |author7=Ian Smith   | title =Correspondence between glass-FT and 14C ages of silicic pyroclastic flow deposits sourced from Maninjau caldera, west-central Sumatra  | journal = Earth and Planetary Science Letters  | volume = 227  | issue =  1–2| pages = 121–133  | publisher = Elsevier  | date = 30 October 2004  | doi = 10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.014 | bibcode=2004E&PSL.227..121A}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Lake Toba|Lake Toba]] (size: 100 x 30&nbsp;km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI&nbsp;8; 73&nbsp;ka ±4; {{convert|2500|to|3000|km3|cumi|1|sp=us}} of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).<ref name="robock2009" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Twickler and K. Taylor | year = 1996 | title = Potential Atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ~71'000 years ago|first6=K.|last6=Taylor|first5=M. S.|last5=Twickler|first4=S.|last4=Whitlow|first3=L. D.|last3=Meeker | journal = Geophysical Research Letters|first2=P. A. | volume = 23 | issue = 8|last2=Mayewski | pages = 837–840 | publisher = American Geophysical Union|doi=10.1029/96GL00706|first1=G. A. | bibcode=1996GeoRL..23..837Z| url = https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=ers_facpub }}</ref><ref>Jones, S.C. (2007) The Toba supervolcanic eruption: Tephra-fall deposits in India and Paleoanthropological implications; in The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (eds.) M D Petraglia and B Allchin (New York: Springer Press) pp.&nbsp;173–200</ref><ref name=chesner1991>{{cite journal|url=http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ChesnerGeology.pdf|last1=Chesner| first1=C.A.|last2=Westgate|first2=J.A. |last3=Rose|first3=W.I. |last4=Drake|first4=R.|last5=Deino|first5=A.|title=Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified|volume=19 |pages=200–203 |journal=Geology|date=March 1991|accessdate=2010-01-20|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2|issue=3|bibcode = 1991Geo....19..200C }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ninkovich|first=D. |author2=N.J. Shackleton |author3=A.A. Abdel-Monem |author4=J.D. Obradovich |author5=G. Izett|date=7 December 1978|title=K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra|journal=Nature|publisher=Nature Publishing Group|issue=5688|pages=574–577  |doi=10.1038/276574a0|volume=276|bibcode = 1978Natur.276..574N |s2cid=4364788 }}</ref><!-- linked to Noah's Flood -->
*Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20&nbsp;km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84&nbsp;ka; VEI&nbsp;7; {{convert|300|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of tephra.<ref>
  {{cite web
  | url = http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Guatemala/description_guatemala_volcanoes.html
  | title = Guatemala Volcanoes and Volcanics
  | publisher = USGS - CVO
  | accessdate = 2010-03-13 }}</ref>
*[[Earth:Mount Aso|Mount Aso]] (size: 24&nbsp;km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90&nbsp;ka; last eruption was more than {{convert|600|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name="conference2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/COV5/main.html|title=Cities on Volcanoes 5|website=www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Sierra la Primavera|Sierra la Primavera]] volcanic complex (size: 11&nbsp;km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95&nbsp;ka; {{convert|20|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Tala Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref>
  {{cite gvp
  | vn = 341820
  | title = Sierra la Primavera
  | accessdate = 2010-03-24 }}</ref> 
*[[Earth:Mount Aso|Mount Aso]] (size: 24&nbsp;km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120&nbsp;ka; {{convert|80|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Mount Aso|Mount Aso]] (size: 24&nbsp;km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140&nbsp;ka; {{convert|80|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Puy de Sancy|Puy de Sancy]], Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years.
*Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18&nbsp;km), Aleutian Range, 233&nbsp;ka; more than {{convert|50|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Mount Aso|Mount Aso]] (size: 24&nbsp;km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270&nbsp;ka; {{convert|80|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Uzon|Uzon-Geyzernaya]] calderas (size: 9 x 18&nbsp;km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325–175&nbsp;ka<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_78738.htm|title=GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE UZON CALDERA, KAMCHATKA, FAR EAST RUSSIA|website=gsa.confex.com|access-date=2010-08-06|archive-date=2008-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603072412/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_78738.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{convert|20|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} of [[Earth:Ignimbrite|ignimbrite]] deposits.<ref>[http://www.volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300170 Uzon], Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution</ref>
*[[Earth:Maipo (volcano)|Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex]] (size: 20 x 16&nbsp;km), Argentina-Chile; 450&nbsp;ka; {{convert|450|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref>{{cite journal|last= Sruoga
 |first= Patricia |author2=Eduardo J. Llambías |author3=Luis Fauqué |author4=David Schonwandt |author5=David G. Repol
 |date= September 2005
 |title= Volcanological and geochemical evolution of the Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex in the southern Andes of Argentina (34°10′S) 
 |journal= Journal of South American Earth Sciences  
 |volume= 19
 |issue= 4
 |pages= 399–414
 |doi = 10.1016/j.jsames.2005.06.003 |bibcode = 2005JSAES..19..399S |hdl= 11336/75928|hdl-access= free}}</ref>  
*[[Earth:Yellowstone hotspot|Yellowstone hotspot]]; [[Earth:Yellowstone Caldera|Yellowstone Caldera]] (size: 45 x 85&nbsp;km); 640&nbsp;ka; VEI&nbsp;8; more than {{convert|1000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra ([[Earth:Lava Creek Tuff|Lava Creek Tuff]])<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*[[Earth:Three Sisters (Oregon)|Three Sisters (Oregon)]], USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600–700 to 170&nbsp;ka years ago
*[[Earth:Uinkaret volcanic field|Uinkaret volcanic field]], Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100&nbsp;ka.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Karlstrom
 |first= K.
 |author2=Crow, R. |author3=Peters, L. |author4=McIntosh, W. |author5=Raucci, J. |author6=Crossey, L. |author7=Umhoefer, P.  
 |year= 2007
 |title= 40Ar/39Ar and field studies of Quaternary basalts in Grand Canyon and model for carving Grand Canyon: Quantifying the interaction of river incision and normal faulting across the western edge of the Colorado Plateau
 |journal= GSA Bulletin
 |volume= 119
 |issue= 11/12
 |pages= 1283–1312
 |doi =10.1130/0016-7606(2007)119[1283:AAFSOQ]2.0.CO;2 |bibcode = 2007GSAB..119.1283K }}</ref> 
*Mono County, California, USA; [[Earth:Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley Caldera]]; 758.9&nbsp;ka ±1.8; VEI&nbsp;7; {{convert|600|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Bishop Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref>Hildreth, W. (1979), Sarna-Wojcicki ''et al.'' (2000).</ref>
*[[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles Caldera]], New Mexico, USA; 1.25&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;7; around {{convert|600|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of the Tshirege Member (Upper [[Earth:Bandelier Tuff|Bandelier Tuff]]) eruption.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=izett1981>Izett, Glen A. (1981).</ref><ref>Heiken ''et al.'' (1990).</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Wolff|first1=J. A.|last2=Ramos|first2=F. C.|date=2013-12-18|title=Processes in Caldera-Forming High-Silica Rhyolite Magma: Rb-Sr and Pb Isotope Systematics of the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff, Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=55|issue=2|pages=345–375|doi=10.1093/petrology/egt070|issn=0022-3530|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Sutter Buttes|Sutter Buttes]], Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5&nbsp;Ma by a now-extinct volcano.
*[[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles Caldera]], New Mexico, USA; 1.61&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;7; over {{convert|500|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of the Otowi Member (Lower Bandelier Tuff) eruption.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
*Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|380|to|490|km3|cumi|1|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*Yellowstone hotspot; [[Earth:Island Park Caldera|Island Park Caldera]] (size: 100 x 50&nbsp;km); 2.1&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;8; {{convert|2450|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of [[Earth:Huckleberry Ridge Tuff|Huckleberry Ridge Tuff]].<ref name=wardtable2009>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf 
 |title=Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces 
 |publisher=Teton Tectonics 
 |accessdate=2010-03-16 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120021410/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf 
 |archive-date=2010-01-20 
}}</ref><ref name="largeeruptions" />
*Cerro Galán (size: 32&nbsp;km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 2.2&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;8;  {{convert|1050|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Cerro Galán Ignimbrite.<ref name=mason2004>{{cite journal
 | author = Ben G. Mason
 |author2=David M. Pyle |author3=Clive Oppenheimer
  | year = 2004
 | title = The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth
 | journal = Bulletin of Volcanology
 | volume = 66
 | issue = 8
 | pages = 735–748
 | doi = 10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9
 | bibcode=2004BVol...66..735M
 |s2cid=129680497 }}</ref>

==Large Neogene eruptions==

===Pliocene eruptions===
Approximately 5.332&nbsp;million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.{{Location map many
|Nevada   
|label       = Santa Rosa-Calico
|label_size  = 70
|pos   = right
|lat         = 41.67
|long        = -117.5
|marksize    = 8
|label2      = Virgin Valley
|label2_size = 70
|pos2        = right  
|lat2        = 41.5
|long2       = -119
|mark2size   = 8
|label3      = McDermitt
|label3_size = 70
|pos3   = left
|lat3        = 41.83
|long3       = -118
|mark3size   = 8
|label4      = Black Mountain 
|label4_size = 70
|pos4        = left
|lat4        = 37.25
|long4       = -116.67
|label5      = Silent Canyon
|label5_size = 70
|pos5   = right  
|lat5        = 37.33
|long5       = -116.5
|mark5size   = 8
|label6      = Timber Mountain
|label6_size = 70
|pos6   = bottom
|lat6        = 37
|long6       = -116.5
|mark6size   = 8
|label7      = Stonewall 
|label7_size = 70
|pos7        = left
|lat7        = 37.5
|long7       = -117
|mark7size   = 8
|label8      = Long Valley 
|label8_size = 70
|pos8        = right
|lat8        = 38.42
|long8       = -118.906389
|mark8size   = 8
|label9      = Lunar Crater
|label9_size = 70
|pos9        = right
|lat9        = 38.383968
|long9       = -116.069167
|mark9size   = 8
|border      = none
|caption     = Nevada/ California: <br />Volcanism locations.
|float       = right
|width       = 210
}}
{{Location map many
|Colorado   
|label      = Cochetopa
|label_size = 70
|pos   = right
|lat    = 38.188546
|long    = -106.733551
|marksize   = 8
|label2      = La Garita
|label2_size = 70
|pos2   = right  
|lat2        = 37.849444
|long2       = -106.926111
|mark2size   = 8
|label3      = Lake City
|label3_size = 70
|pos3   = left
|lat3        = 38.025377
|long3       = -107.384491
|mark3size   = 8
|label4      = Platoro 
|label4_size = 70
|pos4   = left
|lat4    = 37.352147
|long4    = -106.530991
|mark4size   = 8
|label5      = Dotsero 
|label5_size = 70
|pos5   = left
|lat5    = 39.660556
|long5    = -107.035
|mark5size   = 8
|border     = none
|caption    = Colorado volcanism. Links: [[Earth:La Garita Caldera|La Garita]], Cochetopa and North Pass (North Pass), Lake City, and [[Earth:Dotsero|Dotsero]]. 
|float      = right
|width      = 210
}}{{Location map many
|New Mexico   
|label      = Valles
|label_size = 70
|pos   = right
|lat    = 35.910186
|long    = -106.539917
|marksize   = 8
|label2      = Socorro
|label2_size = 70
|pos2   = right  
|lat2        = 33.961586
|long2       = -107.080994
|mark2size   = 8
|label3      = Potrillo
|label3_size = 70
|pos3   = right  
|lat3        = 31.937013
|long3       = -107.019882
|mark3size   = 8
|label4      = Zuni-Bandera
|label4_size = 70
|pos4   = right  
|lat4        = 34.8
|long4       = -108
|mark4size   = 8
|label5      = Carizzozo
|label5_size = 70
|pos5   = right  
|lat5        = 33.7
|long5       = -106
|mark5size   = 8
|border     = none
|caption    = New Mexico volcanism. Links: [[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles]], Socorro, [[Earth:Potrillo volcanic field|Potrillo]], [[Earth:Carrizozo volcanic field|Carrizozo]], and [[Earth:Zuni-Bandera volcanic field|Zuni-Bandera]].
|float      = right
|width      = 210
}}<!-- Potrillo volcanic field is 22 miles SW of Las Cruces, Cochetopa Caldera is W of the North Pass, the center of the Lake City Caldera is around 8 km W of Lake City, the center of the Socorro Caldera is between Socorro and Magdalena Peak. -->
*[[Earth:Boring Lava Field|Boring Lava Field]], Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7&nbsp;Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years.<ref name="Wood">{{cite book | last = Wood | first = Charles A. |author2=Jűrgen Kienle  | title = Volcanoes of North America | publisher = {{wipe|Cambridge University Press}} | year = 1990 | pages = 170–172}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Norfolk Island|Norfolk Island]], Australia; remnant of a [[Earth:Basalt|basalt]]ic [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]] active around 2.3 to 3&nbsp;Ma.<ref>[http://www.norfolkisland.com.au/environment/geological_origins.cfm Geological origins] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907084428/http://www.norfolkisland.com.au/environment/geological_origins.cfm |date=2008-09-07 }}, Norfolk Island Tourism. Accessed 2007-04-13.</ref>
*Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50&nbsp;km), Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, Bolivia; 2.9&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;7; more than  {{convert|820|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Pastos Grandes [[Earth:Ignimbrite|Ignimbrite]].<ref>Ort, M. H.; de Silva, S.; Jiminez, N.; Salisbury, M.; Jicha, B. R. and Singer, B. S. (2009). [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2009AM/finalprogram/abstract_165247.htm Two new supereruptions in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091020110201/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2009AM/finalprogram/abstract_165247.htm |date=2009-10-20 }}.</ref>
*[[Earth:Little Barrier Island|Little Barrier Island]], northeastern coast of [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]]'s North Island; it erupted from 1&nbsp;million to 3&nbsp;Ma.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lindsay|first=Jan M.|author2=Tim J. Worthington|author3=Ian E. M. Smith|author4=Philippa M. Black|date=June 1999|title=Geology, petrology, and petrogenesis of Little Barrier Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand|url=http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1999/11.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics|volume=42|issue=2|pages=155–168|doi=10.1080/00288306.1999.9514837|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041101020750/http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1999/11.pdf|archive-date=November 1, 2004|accessdate=2007-12-03}} <!--This paper does not mention any VEI-6 eruptions. The entire current edifice has a volume of about 13 km³. It is ok, before the Quaternary there is no claim that it is VEI-6 or equivalent -->
</ref>
*[[Earth:Mount Kenya|Mount Kenya]]; a [[Earth:Stratovolcano|stratovolcano]] created approximately 3&nbsp;Ma after the opening of the East African rift.<ref name=Rift>{{Cite web
|url=http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/90/18/PDF/These_P.Nonnotte_web.pdf
|author=Philippe Nonnotte
|title= ''Étude volcano-tectonique de la zone de divergence Nord-Tanzanienne (terminaison sud du rift kenyan)'' &ndash; Caractérisation pétrologique et géochimique du volcanisme récent (8 Ma – Actuel) et du manteau source &ndash; Contraintes de mise en place thèse de doctorat de l'université de Bretagne occidentale, spécialité : géosciences marines}}</ref>
*Pacana Caldera (size: 60 x 35&nbsp;km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile; 4&nbsp;Ma; VEI&nbsp;8; {{convert|2500|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Atana Ignimbrite.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lindsay J. M. |author2=de Silva S. |author3=Trumbull R. |author4=Emmermann R. |author5=Wemmer K. | year = 2001 | title = La Pacana caldera, N. Chile: a re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and volcanology of one of the world's largest resurgent calderas | journal = Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research | volume = 106 | issue = 1–2| pages = 145–173 | doi = 10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00270-5 |bibcode = 2001JVGR..106..145L }}</ref>
*[[Earth:Nuevo Mundo volcano|Frailes Plateau]], Bolivia; 4&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|620|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Frailes Ignimbrite E.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/CVZ/frailes/index.html|title=Frailes Plateau}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=no }}</ref>
*Cerro Galán (size: 32&nbsp;km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 4.2&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|510|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Real Grande and Cueva Negra tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Yellowstone hotspot|Yellowstone hotspot]], Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Kilgore Caldera (size: 80 x 60&nbsp;km); VEI&nbsp;8; {{convert|1800|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Kilgore Tuff; 4.45&nbsp;Ma ±0.05.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=Heise>
{{cite journal
 |last1        = Morgan
 |first1        = Lisa A. Morgan
 |author2      = William C. McIntosh
 |date         = March 2005
 |title        = Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA
 |journal      = GSA Bulletin
 |volume       = 117
 |issue        = 3–4
 |pages        = 288–306
 |url          = http://www.rcn.montana.edu/pubs/pdf/2005/GSA_Heise_final.pdf
 |accessdate   = 2010-03-16
 |doi          = 10.1130/B25519.1
 |bibcode      = 2005GSAB..117..288M
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20111003073236/http://www.rcn.montana.edu/pubs/pdf/2005/GSA_Heise_final.pdf
 |archive-date = 2011-10-03
 |url-status     = dead
}}
</ref>
*Khari Khari Caldera, Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 5&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|470|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />

===Miocene eruptions===
[[File:Banks Peninsula from space.jpg|thumb|right|210px|The final eruptions in the creation of Banks Peninsula in New Zealand occurred about 9 million years ago.]]
[[File:Gran Canaria wildfire (48590670831).jpg|thumb|right|210px|A major eruption of Gran Canaria took place around 14 million years ago.]]
Approximately 23.03&nbsp;million years BP, the [[Earth:Neogene|Neogene]] period and Miocene epoch begin.
* [[Earth:Cerro Guacha|Cerro Guacha]], Bolivia; 5.6–5.8&nbsp;Ma (Guacha ignimbrite).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=M. J.|last2=Jicha|first2=B. R.|last3=de Silva|first3=S. L.|last4=Singer|first4=B. S.|last5=Jimenez|first5=N. C.|last6=Ort|first6=M. H.|title=40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|date=21 December 2010|volume=123|issue=5–6|pages=821–840|doi=10.1130/B30280.1|bibcode=2011GSAB..123..821S}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Lord Howe Island|Lord Howe Island]], Australia; [[Earth:Mount Lidgbird|Mount Lidgbird]] and Mount Gower are both made of [[Earth:Basalt|basalt]] rock, remnants of [[Earth:Lava|lava]] flows that once filled a large volcanic [[Earth:Caldera|caldera]] 6.4&nbsp;Ma.<ref name=Geo>[http://www.lordhoweisland.info/conservation/geo.htm Geography and Geology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912073751/http://www.lordhoweisland.info/conservation/geo.htm |date=2014-09-12 }}, Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. Retrieved on 2009-04-20.</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51&nbsp;Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff).<ref name=Heise />
*Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|500|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Blue Creek Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*Cerro Panizos (size: 18&nbsp;km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|652|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Panizos Ignimbrite.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref>
  {{cite web
  | url = http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/CVZ/panizos/index.html
  | title = Cerro Panizos
  | publisher = Volcano World 
  | accessdate = 2010-03-15 }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27&nbsp;Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff).<ref name=Heise />
*Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60&nbsp;km), Idaho; 6.62&nbsp;Ma ±0.03; {{convert|1500|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Blacktail Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=Heise />
*Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50&nbsp;km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|652|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Sifon Ignimbrite.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Manus Island|Manus Island]], Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10&nbsp;Ma
*[[Earth:Banks Peninsula|Banks Peninsula]], New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9&nbsp;Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12&nbsp;Ma.<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/geology-overview/7 Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand]</ref>
*Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10&nbsp;Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot.
*Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10&nbsp;Ma.<ref name=anders2009>{{cite web
  | url = http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~manders/SRP_erupt.html
  | title = Mark Anders: Yellowstone hotspot track
  | publisher = Columbia University, Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO)
  | accessdate = 2010-03-16 }}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Grey's Landing Supereruption, Idaho; 8.72 Ma, {{convert|2,800|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Grey's Landing Ignimbrite.<ref name="New">{{cite journal |last1=Knott |first1=Thomas |last2=Branney |first2=M. |last3=Reichow |first3=Marc |last4=Finn |first4=David |last5=Tapster |first5=Simon |last6=Coe |first6=Robert |title=Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning? |journal=Geology |date=June 2020 |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=934–938 |doi=10.1130/G47384.1 |bibcode=2020Geo....48..934K |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341810855 |access-date=21 June 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, McMullen Supereruption, Idaho; 8.99 Ma, {{convert|1,700|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of volcanic material<ref name="New"/>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21&nbsp;Ma ± 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff).<ref name=Heise />
*[[Earth:Mount Cargill|Mount Cargill]], New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10&nbsp;Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of [[Place:Dunedin|Dunedin]]. Much of the caldera is filled by [[Earth:Otago Harbour|Otago Harbour]].<ref>Coombs, D. S., Dunedin Volcano, Misc. Publ. 37B, pp. 2–28, Geol. Soc. of N. Z., Dunedin, 1987.</ref><ref>Coombs, D. S., R. A. Cas, Y. Kawachi, C. A. Landis, W. F. Mc-Donough, and A. Reay, Cenozoic volcanism in north, east and central Otago, Bull. R. Soc. N. Z., 23, 278–312, 1986.</ref><ref>Bishop, D.G., and Turnbull, I.M. (compilers) (1996). ''Geology of the Dunedin Area''. Lower Hutt, NZ: Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences. {{ISBN|0-478-09521-X}}.</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; [[Earth:Bruneau-Jarbidge caldera|Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field]]; 10.0 to 12.5&nbsp;Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption).<ref name=anders2009 />
*Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the [[Earth:Anahim Volcanic Belt|Anahim Volcanic Belt]] over the last 13 million years.
*Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9&nbsp;Ma.<ref name=anders2009 /><ref name=sawyer1984>{{cite journal|last= Sawyer
 |first= David A.
 |author2=R. J. Fleck |author3=M. A. Lanphere |author4=R. G. Warren |author5=D. E. Broxton |author6=Mark R. Hudson 
 |date= October 1994
 |title= Episodic caldera volcanism in the Miocene southwestern Nevada volcanic field: Revised stratigraphic framework, 40Ar/39Ar geochronology, and implications for magmatism and extension
 |journal= Geological Society of America Bulletin
 |volume= 106
 |issue= 10
 |pages= 1304–1318
 |doi =10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<1304:ECVITM>2.3.CO;2 |bibcode = 1994GSAB..106.1304S }}</ref>
*Tejeda Caldera, [[Earth:Gran Canaria|Gran Canaria]], Spain; 13.9&nbsp;Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10&nbsp;km from the caldera center<ref>http://www-odp.tamu.edu/Publications/157_SR/VOLUME/CHAP_14.PDF {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>
*[[Earth:Gran Canaria|Gran Canaria]] shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14&nbsp;Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Geology of the Canary Islands - 1st Edition|url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-geology-of-the-canary-islands/troll/978-0-12-809663-5|access-date=2021-09-21|website=www.elsevier.com}}</ref>
*Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|79|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15&nbsp;Ma ±1; {{convert|1100|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15&nbsp;km wide), Oregon; 15&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|40|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Whitehorse Creek Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=lipman1984>{{cite journal|last= Lipman
 |first= P.W.
 |date= September 30, 1984
 |title= The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths
 |journal= Journal of Geophysical Research
 |volume= 89
 |issue= B10
 |pages= 8801–8841
 |doi = 10.1029/JB089iB10p08801
|bibcode=1984JGR....89.8801L}}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5&nbsp;Ma.<ref>{{cite conference|last= Rytuba
 |first= James J. 
 |author2=John, David A. |author3=McKee, Edwin H.  
 |title= Volcanism Associated with Eruption of the Steens Basalt and Inception of the Yellowstone Hotspot
 |conference= Rocky Mountain (56th Annual) and Cordilleran (100th Annual) Joint Meeting (May 3–5, 2004)
 |id= Paper No. 44-2
 |url= http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004RM/finalprogram/abstract_72657.htm
 |accessdate= 2010-03-26
|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223094407/http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004RM/finalprogram/abstract_72657.htm|archive-date=2010-12-23
 }}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 10–15&nbsp;km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|350|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} Longridge Tuff member 2–3.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=anders2009 /><ref name=lipman1984 /><ref name=ludington1996 />
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33&nbsp;km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|400|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} Longridge Tuff member 5.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=anders2009 /><ref name=lipman1984 /><ref name=ludington1996 />
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17&nbsp;km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|300|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Double H Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=anders2009 /><ref name=lipman1984 /><ref name=ludington1996 />
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16&nbsp;Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.<ref name=rytuba1984 />
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10&nbsp;km), Oregon; 15.8&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|40|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=lipman1984 /><ref name=rytuba1984 >{{cite journal
 |last         = Rytuba
 |first        = J.J.
 |author2      = McKee, E.H.
 |year         = 1984
 |title        = Peralkaline ash flow tuffs and calderas of the McDermitt Volcanic Field, southwest Oregon and north central Nevada
 |journal      = Journal of Geophysical Research
 |volume       = 89
 |issue        = B10
 |pages        = 8616–8628
 |url          = http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1984/JB089iB10p08616.shtml
 |accessdate   = 2010-03-23
 |doi          = 10.1029/JB089iB10p08616
 |bibcode      = 1984JGR....89.8616R
 |archive-date = 2012-09-27
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014537/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1984/JB089iB10p08616.shtml
 |url-status   = dead
}}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25&nbsp;km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|250|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Oregon Canyon Tuff.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name=lipman1984 /><ref name=ludington1996>{{Cite book
|author1=Steve Ludington|author2=Dennis P. Cox|author3=Kenneth W. Leonard|author4=Barry C. Moring|name-list-style=amp|contribution=Chapter 5, Cenozoic Volcanic Geology in Nevada |editor=Donald A. Singer|title=An Analysis of Nevada's Metal-Bearing Mineral Resources|publisher=Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada|year=1996|contribution-url= http://www.nbmg.unr.edu/dox/ofr962/c5.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060204211308/http://www.nbmg.unr.edu/dox/ofr962/c5.pdf|archive-date=2006-02-04}}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5&nbsp;Ma.<ref>{{cite conference
 | year= 2008
 | title= New geologic evidence for additional 16.5–15.5 Ma silicic calderas in northwest Nevada related to initial impingement of the Yellowstone hot spot
 | conference= Earth and Environmental Science
 | volume= 3
 | issue= 1
 | publisher = Collapse Calderas Workshop, IOP Conf. Series 
 | pages= 012002
 | doi = 10.1088/1755-1307/3/1/012002
 |author1=Matthew A. Coble |author2=Gail A. Mahood  |name-list-style=amp | bibcode= 2008E&ES....3a2002C
 | doi-access= free
 }}</ref>
*Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and [[Earth:Columbia River Basalt Group|Columbia River flood basalts]], Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14 to 17&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|180000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name="wardtable2009" /><ref name="Carson">{{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Robert J. |last2=Pogue |first2=Kevin R. |title=Flood Basalts and Glacier Floods:Roadside Geology of Parts of Walla Walla, Franklin, and Columbia Counties, Washington |publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 90)|year=1996 }}</ref><ref name="Reidel">{{cite journal |last=Reidel |first=Stephen P. |title=A Lava Flow without a Source: The Cohasset Flow and Its Compositional Members |journal=The Journal of Geology |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |year=2005 |doi=10.1086/425966 |bibcode=2005JG....113....1R|s2cid=12587046 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last= Brueseke |first= M.E. |author2=Heizler, M.T. |author3=Hart, W.K. |author4=S.A. Mertzman |date= 15 March 2007 |title= Distribution and geochronology of Oregon Plateau (U.S.A.) flood basalt volcanism: The Steens Basalt revisited |journal= Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research |volume= 161 |issue= 3 |pages= 187–214 
 |doi = 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.12.004 |bibcode = 2007JVGR..161..187B }}</ref><ref>[http://www.summitpost.org/area/range/355999/southeast-oregon-basin-and-range.html SummitPost.org, ''Southeast Oregon Basin and Range'']</ref><ref>[https://mrdata.usgs.gov/geology/state/sgmc-unit.php?unit=ORTbas%3B0 USGS, ''Andesitic and basaltic rocks on Steens Mountain'']</ref><ref name=malheurrivergorge >[http://bulletin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/115/1/105 GeoScienceWorld, ''Genesis of flood basalts and Basin and Range volcanic rocks from Steens Mountain to the Malheur River Gorge, Oregon'']</ref><ref>{{cite web
  | url = http://www.oregongeology.com/sub/publications/ims/ims-028/unit08.htm
  | title = Oregon: A Geologic History. 8. Columbia River Basalt: the Yellowstone hot spot arrives in a flood of fire
  | publisher = Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries
  | accessdate = 2010-03-26
  | archive-date = 2012-03-05
  | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120305094955/http://www.oregongeology.com/sub/publications/ims/ims-028/unit08.htm
  | url-status = dead
  }}</ref>
*Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17&nbsp;Ma after 4 million years of activity.
*Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18°S); 19&nbsp;Ma; {{convert|3000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
*[[Earth:Pemberton Volcanic Belt|Pemberton Volcanic Belt]] was erupting about 21 to 22&nbsp;Ma.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cenozoic to Recent plate configurations in the Pacific Basin: Ridge subduction and slab window magmatism in western North America|first1=J.K.|last1=Madsen|first2=D.J.|last2=Thorkelson|first3=R.M.|last3=Friedman|first4=D.D.|last4=Marshall|date=6 May 2018|journal=Geosphere|volume=2|issue=1|pages=11|doi=10.1130/ges00020.1|bibcode=2006Geosp...2...11M|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Volcanism before the Neogene==
[[File:Hotspots.jpg|thumb|right|Distribution of selected hotspots. The numbers in the figure are related to the listed hotspots on Hotspot (geology).]]

*Paleogene ends 23 million years ago.
**The formation of the [[Earth:Chilcotin Group|Chilcotin Group]] basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago.
**The formation of the [[Earth:Columbia River Basalt Group|Columbia River Basalt Group]] occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago.
**[[Earth:La Garita Caldera|La Garita Caldera]] erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), {{convert|5000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago.<ref name=mason2004 /><ref>[http://staff.aist.go.jp/s-takarada/CEV/newsletter/lagarita.html Largest explosive eruptions: New results for the 27.8&nbsp;Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519165154/http://staff.aist.go.jp/s-takarada/CEV/newsletter/lagarita.html |date=2011-05-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
 | doi = 10.1093/petrology/43.8.1469
 | author = Olivier Bachmann |author2=Michael A. Dungan |author3=Peter W. Lipman   | year = 2002 | title = The Fish Canyon Magma Body, San Juan Volcanic Field, Colorado: Rejuvenation and Eruption of an Upper-Crustal Batholith  | journal = Journal of Petrology | volume = 43 | issue = 8 | pages = 1469–1503 | url = http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/43/8/1469 | accessdate = 2010-03-16 | bibcode = 2002JPet...43.1469B | doi-access = free }}</ref>
**Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least {{convert|3000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of Green Tuff and SAM.<ref name="wardtable2009" />
**Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least {{convert|5550|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.<ref name=peate2005>{{cite journal |author=Ingrid Ukstins Peate |author2=Joel A. Baker |author3=Mohamed Al-Kadasi |author4=Abdulkarim Al-Subbary |author5=Kim B. Knight |author6=Peter Riisager |author7=Matthew F. Thirlwall |author8=David W. Peate |author9=Paul R. Renne |author10= Martin A. Menzies  |title=Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=68 |pages=135–156 |year=2005 |doi=10.1007/s00445-005-0428-4 |issue=2|bibcode = 2005BVol...68..135P |s2cid=140160158 }}.</ref>
**Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least {{convert|3700|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.<ref name=peate2005 />
**The [[Earth:Ethiopian Highlands|Ethiopian Highlands flood basalt]] begins 30 million years ago
*About 33.9 million ago, the [[Earth:Oligocene|Oligocene]] epoch of the [[Earth:Paleogene|Paleogene]] period begins
**The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up begins 40 million years ago and lasts until 25 million years ago.
**[[Earth:Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex|Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex]] erupts 50 million years ago with a VEI 7 {{convert|850|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}} of tephra.<ref name="SI">{{cite journal|title=Crustal recycling during subduction at the Eocene Cordilleran margin of North America: a petrogenetic study from the southwestern Yukon|author1=George A. Morris|author2=Robert A. Creaser|name-list-style=amp|journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences|date=2003|volume=40|issue=12|pages=1805–1821|doi=10.1139/e03-063|bibcode=2003CaJES..40.1805M}}</ref>
**Canary hotspot is believed to have first appeared about 60 million years ago.
**Formation of the Brito-Arctic province begins 61 million years ago
**Réunion hotspot, [[Earth:Deccan Traps|Deccan Traps]], India, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago which are thought to have played a role in the [[Earth:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]].
**The Louisville hotspot has produced the [[Earth:Louisville Ridge|Louisville Ridge]], it is active for at least 80 million years. It may have originated the [[Earth:Ontong Java Plateau|Ontong Java Plateau]] around 120 million years ago.
**[[Earth:Hawaii hotspot|Hawaii hotspot]], [[Earth:Meiji Seamount|Meiji Seamount]] is the oldest extant seamount in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, with an estimated age of 82 million years.
**The [[Earth:Kerguelen Plateau|Kerguelen Plateau]] begins forming 110 million years ago.
**The Rahjamal Traps form from 117 to 116 million years ago.
**The [[Earth:Ontong Java Plateau|Ontong Java Plateau]] forms from 125 to 120 million years ago
**[[Earth:Paraná and Etendeka traps|Paraná and Etendeka traps]], Brazil, Namibia and Angola form 128 to 138 million years ago. 132 million years ago, a possible supervolcanic eruption occurred, ejecting {{convert|8600|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}}.<ref>Sur l'âge des trapps basaltiques (On the ages of flood basalt events); Vincent E. Courtillot & Paul R. Renneb; Comptes Rendus Geoscience; Vol: 335 Issue: 1, January, 2003; pp: 113–140</ref>
**Formation of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts begins 183 million years ago.
*The flood basalts of the [[Earth:Central Atlantic magmatic province|Central Atlantic magmatic province]] are thought to have contributed to the [[Biology:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event|Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]] about 199 million years ago.
*The Siberian Traps are thought to have played a significant role in the [[Earth:Permian–Triassic extinction event|Permian–Triassic extinction event]] 252 million years ago.
**Formation of the Emeishan Traps began 260 million years ago.
*The [[Earth:Late Devonian extinction|Late Devonian extinction]] occurs about 374 million years ago.
*The Ordovician–Silurian extinction event occurs between 450 and 440 million years ago.
**[[Earth:Glen Coe|Glen Coe]], Scotland; VEI 8; 420 million years ago
**Scafells, Lake District, England; VEI 8; Ordovician (488.3–443.7 million years ago).
**[[Earth:Flat Landing Brook Formation|Flat Landing Brook]]; VEI 8, A [[Earth:Supervolcano|Supervolcanic eruption]] occurred 466 million years ago, as it erupted in one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions known in Earth's history with a volume of ejecta at around {{convert|2,000–12,000|km3|cumi|0|sp=us}}. 
*The [[Earth:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic]] eon begins 539 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stratigraphic Chart 2022 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf |publisher=International Stratigraphic Commission | date=February 2022  |access-date=25 April 2022}}</ref>
**Midcontinent Rift System of North America begins forming 1,000 million years ago.
**[[Earth:Mackenzie Large Igneous Province|Mackenzie Large Igneous Province]] forms 1,270 million years ago.
**Mistassini dike swarm and Matachewan dike swarm form 2,500 million years ago.
**[[Earth:Blake River Megacaldera Complex|Blake River Megacaldera Complex]] forms 2,704–2,707 million years ago.<ref name=vipgac>[http://vip-gac.ca/Ashfall/Ashfall62.pdf ASH FALL: Newsletter of the Volcanology and Igneous Petrology Division Geological Association of Canada] Retrieved on 2007-09-21</ref>
*Approximately 2,500 million years ago, the [[Earth:Proterozoic|Proterozoic]] eon of the Precambrian period begins
*About 3,800 million years ago, the [[Earth:Archean|Archean]] eon of the [[Earth:Precambrian|Precambrian]] period begins

==Notes==
*The [[Earth:Mackenzie Large Igneous Province|Mackenzie Large Igneous Province]] contains the largest and best-preserved continental [[Earth:Flood basalt|flood basalt]] terrain on Earth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prizemining.com/s/MuskoxProperty.asp|title=Muskox Property - The Muskox Intrusion|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090408190058/http://www.prizemining.com/s/MuskoxProperty.asp|archive-date=2009-04-08}}</ref> The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest [[Earth:Dike swarm|dike swarm]] on Earth, covering an area of {{Convert|2700000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/08sep.html The 1.27 Ga Mackenzie Large Igneous Province and Muskox layered intrusion]{{dead link|date=May 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, [[Earth:Wheeler Geologic Area|Wheeler Geologic Area]], La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado.
*The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the [[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles Caldera]], the [[Earth:Potrillo volcanic field|Potrillo volcanic field]], and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system.<ref>{{cite web
  | url = http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/chamberlin/mrds/Chamberlin_2002_GSA_poster.pdf
  | title = Westward Migrating Ignimbrite Calderas and a Large Radiating Mafic Dike Swarm of Oligocene Age, Central Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico: Surface Expression of an Upper Mantle Diapir? 
  | publisher = New Mexico Tech
  | accessdate = 2010-03-21 }}</ref> The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2&nbsp;mm/year.<ref>Fialko, Y., and M. Simons, Evidence for on-going inflation of the Socorro magma body, New Mexico, from interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging Geop. Res. Lett., 28, 3549–3552, 2001.</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.ees.nmt.edu/Geop/Museum_Posters/NMseismology.html
 |title       = Socorro Magma Body
 |publisher   = New Mexico Tech
 |accessdate  = 2010-03-21
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20100615041810/http://www.ees.nmt.edu/Geop/Museum_Posters/NMseismology.html
 |archive-date = 2010-06-15
}}</ref>
*The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or [[Earth:Yucca Mountain|Yucca Mountain]] volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis Valley caldera complex, Crater Flat Group, and Yucca Mountain. Towns nearby: Beatty, Mercury, Goldfield.<ref>{{cite web
  | url = http://www.pggdb-swnvf.lanl.gov/report/img/fig-1.jpg
  | title = Figure: Calderas within southwestern Nevada volcanic field 
  | publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory
  | accessdate = 2010-03-16 }}</ref> It is aligned as a Crater Flat volcanic field, Réveille Range, [[Earth:Lunar Crater volcanic field|Lunar Crater volcanic field]], Zone (CFLC).<ref>{{cite journal
 |author1=Smith, E.I. |author2=D.L. Keenan  |name-list-style=amp |date= 30 August 2005 |title= Yucca Mountain Could Face Greater Volcanic Threat |journal= Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union |volume= 86  |issue= 35 |pages=  317|url= http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news2005/pdf/eos20050830.pdf |accessdate= 5 April 2016 |doi = 10.1029/2005eo350001 |bibcode=2005EOSTr..86..317S|citeseerx=10.1.1.371.6505 }}</ref> The Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah is nearby too.
*McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816&nbsp;ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek.
*Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18&nbsp;km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. [[Earth:Mount Emmons (Alaska)|Mount Emmons]], Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones.<ref name="largeeruptions"/>
*The topography of the [[Earth:Basin and Range Province|Basin and Range Province]] is a result of crustal extension within this part of the [[Earth:North American Plate|North American Plate]] (rifting of the North American craton or Laurentia from Western North America; e.g. Gulf of California, Rio Grande rift, Oregon-Idaho [[Earth:Graben|graben]]). The crust here has been stretched up to 100% of its original width.<ref>[http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/basinrange.html Geologic Provinces of the United States: Basin and Range Province on USGS.gov website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125163038/http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/basinrange.html |date=2009-01-25 }} Retrieved 9 November 2009</ref> In fact, the crust underneath the Basin and Range, especially under the Great Basin (includes Nevada), is some of the thinnest in the world.
*Topographically visible calderas: South part of the McDermitt volcanic field (four overlapping and nested calderas), West of McDermitt; Cochetopa Park Caldera, West of the North Pass; [[Earth:Henry's Fork Caldera|Henry's Fork Caldera]]; [[Earth:Banks Peninsula|Banks Peninsula]], New Zealand (Photo) and [[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles Caldera]]. Newer drawings show McDermitt volcanic field (South), as five overlapping and nested calderas. Hoppin Peaks Caldera is included too.
*Repose periods: [[Earth:Lake Toba|Toba]] (0.38 Ma),<ref name=chesner1991/> [[Earth:Valles Caldera|Valles Caldera]] (0.35 Ma),<ref>Doell, R.R., Dalrymple, G.B., Smith, R.L., and Bailey, R.A., 1986, Paleomagnetism, potassium-argon ages, and geology of rhyolite and associated rocks of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico: Geological Society of America Memoir 116, p. 211-248.</ref><ref>Izett, G.A., Obradovich, J.D., Naeser, C.W., and Cebula, G.T., 1981, Potassium-argon and fission-track ages of Cerro Toledo rhyolite tephra in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, in Shorter contributions to isotope research in the western United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1199-D, p. 37-43.</ref> [[Earth:Yellowstone Caldera|Yellowstone Caldera]] (0.7 Ma).<ref>Christiansen, R.L., and Blank, H.R., 1972, Volcanic stratigraphy of the Quaternary rhyolite plateau in Yellowstone National Park: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 729-B, p. 18.</ref>
*Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. [[Megaannum]] (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that "ago" is implied.

===Volcanic explosivity index (VEI)===
{{main|Earth:Volcanic explosivity index}}
[[File:VEIfigure en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|VEI and ejecta volume correlation]]

{| class="wikitable"
! [[Earth:Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]] || Tephra Volume<br />(cubic kilometers) || Example 
|-
| 0 || Effusive || [[Earth:Masaya Volcano|Masaya Volcano]], Nicaragua, 1570 
|-
| 1 || >0.00001 || [[Earth:Poás Volcano|Poás Volcano]], Costa Rica, 1991 
|-
| 2 || >0.001 || [[Earth:Mount Ruapehu|Mount Ruapehu]], [[Earth:New Zealand|New Zealand]], 1971 
|-
| 3 || >0.01 || [[Earth:Nevado del Ruiz|Nevado del Ruiz]], Colombia, 1985 
|-
| 4 || >0.1 || [[Earth:Eyjafjallajökull|Eyjafjallajökull]], Iceland, 2010  
|-
| 5 || >1 || [[Earth:Mount St. Helens|Mount St. Helens]], {{wipe|United States}}, 1980 
|-
| 6 || >10 || [[Earth:Mount Pinatubo|Mount Pinatubo]], {{wipe|Philippines}}, 1991 
|-
| 7 || >100 || Mount Tambora, Indonesia, 1815 
|-
| 8 || >1000 || [[Earth:Yellowstone Caldera|Yellowstone Caldera]], {{wipe|United States}}, Pleistocene 
|}
&nbsp;
&nbsp;
&nbsp;
&nbsp;

===Volcanic dimming===
{{main|Earth:Global dimming}}

The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and [[Chemistry:Sulfur dioxide|sulfur dioxide]]) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.<ref name=salzer2007>{{cite journal|last= Salzer
 |first= Matthew W. |author2=Malcolm K. Hughes  |year= 2007 |title= Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr |journal= Quaternary Research |volume= 67 |issue=  1|pages= 57–68 |url= http://media.longnow.org/files/2/Salzer_Hughes_2007.pdf |accessdate= 2010-03-18
 |doi = 10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004 |bibcode=2007QuRes..67...57S|s2cid= 14654597 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/vei.php |title = VEI glossary entry |publisher = USGS |accessdate = 2010-03-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
 |url = http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/gas/s02aerosols.php |title = Volcanic Sulfur Aerosols Affect Climate and the Earth's Ozone Layer - Volcanic ash vs sulfur aerosols |publisher = U.S. Geological Survey |accessdate = 2010-04-21 }}</ref> When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at [[Physics:Standard state|standard state]]: -10&nbsp;°C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to [[Chemistry:Sulfuric acid|sulfuric acid]]), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs [[Physics:Ultraviolet|ultraviolet]].<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=38975 NASA.gov] Earth Observatory - Sarychev Eruption</ref> Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high [[Earth:Albedo|albedo]] of the deposited ash layer.<ref name=jones2007>{{cite journal
 | doi=10.1007/s00382-007-0248-7
 | author=Jones, M.T., Sparks, R.S.J., and Valdes, P.J.  | title=The climatic impact of supervolcanis ash blankets  | journal=Climate Dynamics | year=2007 | volume=29 | pages= 553–564
 | issue=6 
|bibcode = 2007ClDy...29..553J | s2cid=55600409 }}</ref> The lower [[Earth:Snow line|snow line]] and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.<ref>Jones, G.S., Gregory, J.M., Scott, P.A., Tett, S.F.B., Thorpe, R.B., 2005. An AOGCM model of the climate response to a volcanic super-eruption. Climate Dynamics 25, 725–738</ref> Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), [[Earth:Cosigüina|Cosigüina]] (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and [[Earth:El Chichón|El Chichón]] (1982), and the [[Earth:1808 mystery eruption|1808 mystery eruption]].<ref name="Dai1991">{{cite journal |last=Dai |first=Jihong |author2=Ellen Mosley-Thompson |author3=Lonnie G. Thompson |year=1991 |title=Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |volume=96 |issue=D9 |url=http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1991/91JD01634.shtml |pages=17,361–17,366 |doi=10.1029/91jd01634 |bibcode=1991JGR....9617361D |access-date=2010-03-26 |archive-date=2012-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927014558/http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1991/91JD01634.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the [[Organization:Mauna Loa Observatory|Mauna Loa Observatory]] (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions:<ref>http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/mloapt.html Atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation (Preliminary) at Mauna Loa, Hawaii</ref>
*June 11, 2009, [[Earth:Sarychev Peak|Sarychev Peak]] (?), Kuril Islands, 400 tons of tephra, VEI&nbsp;4
**{{coord|48|05|30|N|153|12|0|E|type:mountain|name=Sarychev Peak}}
*June 12–15, 1991 (eruptive climax), [[Earth:Mount Pinatubo|Mount Pinatubo]], {{wipe|Philippines}}, 11,000 ±0.5 tons of tephra, VEI&nbsp;6
**Global cooling: 0.5&nbsp;°C,<ref>
  {{cite magazine
  | url = http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Mt.+Pinatubo's+cloud+shades+global+climate.-a012467057
  | title = Mt. Pinatubo's cloud shades global climate
  | magazine = Science News
  | accessdate = 2010-03-07 }}</ref> {{coord|15|08|0|N|120|21|0|E|type:mountain|name=Mount Pinatubo}}
*March 28, 1982, [[Earth:El Chichón|El Chichón]], Mexico, 2,300 tons of tephra, VEI&nbsp;5
**{{coord|17|21|36|N|93|13|40|W|type:mountain|name=El Chichón}}
*October 10, 1974, [[Earth:Volcán de Fuego|Volcán de Fuego]], Guatemala, 400 tons of tephra, VEI&nbsp;4
**{{coord|14|28|22|N|90|52|49|W|type:mountain|name=Fuego}}
*February 18, 1963, Mount Agung, Lesser Sunda Islands, 100 tons of lava, more than 1,000 tons of tephra, VEI&nbsp;5
**Northern Hemisphere cooling: 0.3&nbsp;°C,<ref>Jones, P.D., Wigley, T.M.I, and Kelly, P.M. (1982), Variations in surface air temperatures: Part I. Northern Hemisphere, 1881–1980: Monthly Weather Review, v.110, p. 59-70.</ref>{{coord|8|20|30|S|115|30|30|E|type:mountain|name=Agung}}
&nbsp;

But very large [[Chemistry:Sulfur dioxide|sulfur dioxide]] emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the [[Astronomy:Atmosphere|atmosphere]]. [[Chemistry:Carbon monoxide|Carbon monoxide]]'s and [[Chemistry:Methane|methane]]'s concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's [[Chemistry:Carbon dioxide|carbon dioxide]] solubility goes down.<ref name= ward2009 />

<gallery widths="190px" heights="180px">
Image:Tephra fall from 1991 eruption of Mt Pinatubo.gif|Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.   
Image:TOMS AI Jun16 91.gif|Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.
Image:Mauna Loa atmospheric transmission.png|MLO transmission ratio - [[Physics:Solar radiation|Solar radiation]] reduction due to volcanic eruptions
Image:Aerosol dimming.jpg|NASA, Global Dimming - El&nbsp;Chichon, VEI&nbsp;5; Pinatubo, VEI&nbsp;6.
Image:TOMS SO2 time nov03.png|Sulfur dioxide emissions by [[Earth:Volcano|volcano]]es. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.
Image:TOMS SO2 Jun17 91.gif|TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.
Image:Sarychev Eruption Generates Large Cloud of Sulfur Dioxide.png|Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).
</gallery>

===Map gallery===
<gallery widths="190px" heights="180px">
Image:Yellowstone Major Calderas Map.jpg|Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas. (US NPS)
Image:IPCaldera.jpg|Diagram of Island Park and [[Earth:Henry's Fork Caldera|Henry's Fork Caldera]].
Image:Wpdms shdrlfi020l harney basin.jpg|Harney Basin, Steens Mountain, Owyhee and Malheur River.<ref name=malheurrivergorge />
Image:Steens Mountain relief map.png|Steens Mountain, McDermitt volcanic field and Oregon/ Nevada stateline.
Image:HotspotsSRP_update2013.JPG|Location of Yellowstone Hotspot in Millions of Years Ago.
Image:SnakeRiver.jpg|Snake River Plain, image from NASA's [[Engineering:Aqua (satellite)|Aqua satellite]], 2008
Image:Wfm area51 map en.png|Location of [[Earth:Yucca Mountain|Yucca Mountain]] in southern Nevada, to the west of the Nevada Test Site.
<!-- Image:SanJuanBasinUSGS.jpg|[[Earth:San Juan Basin|San Juan Basin]] and [[Earth:Jemez Mountains|Jemez Mountains]] North of Albuquerque, New Mexico. -->
Image:Santa Fe National Forest Jemez District.jpg|Jemez Ranger District and Jemez Mountains, Santa Fe National Forest.
</gallery>

==See also==
{{div col}}
*{{annotated link|Earth:Dense-rock equivalent}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Volcanic winter of 536}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Geologic timeline of Western North America}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Hotspot (geology)}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Lists of volcanoes}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Ring of Fire}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Stratospheric sulfur aerosols}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Supervolcano}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Volcanic arc}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Volcanic Explosivity Index}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Volcanic winter}} 
*{{annotated link|Earth:Year Without a Summer}} 
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite journal
 |last= Ammann
 |first= Caspar M.
 |author2= Philippe Naveau
 |date= 6 March 2003
 |title= Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries
 |journal= [[Earth:Geophysical Research Letters|Geophysical Research Letters]]
 |volume= 30
 |issue= 5
 |pages= 1210
 |url= http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/ccr/ammann/76/2002GL016388.pdf
 |accessdate= 2010-03-19
 |doi= 10.1029/2002GL016388
 |bibcode= 2003GeoRL..30.1210A
 |s2cid= 135288077
 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110726131915/http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/ccr/ammann/76/2002GL016388.pdf
 |archive-date= 26 July 2011
 |url-status= dead
 |df= dmy-all
 }}
*{{cite journal|last=Froggatt |first=P.C. |author2=Lowe, D.J. |year=1990 |title=A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |volume=33 |pages=89–109 |doi=10.1080/00288306.1990.10427576 |doi-access=free |hdl=10289/176 |hdl-access=free }}  
*{{cite journal|last= Lipman
 |first= P.W.
 |date= September 30, 1984
 |title= The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths
 |journal= [[Earth:Journal of Geophysical Research|Journal of Geophysical Research]]
 |volume= 89
 |issue= B10
 |pages= 8801–8841
 |doi = 10.1029/JB089iB10p08801
|bibcode=1984JGR....89.8801L}}
*{{cite journal | author = Mason, Ben G. |author2=Pyle, David M. |author3=Oppenheimer, Clive| year = 2004|title = The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth | journal = Bulletin of Volcanology | volume = 66 | issue = 8 | pages = 735–748 | doi = 10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9 | bibcode=2004BVol...66..735M|s2cid=129680497 }}
*Newhall, Christopher G., Dzurisin, Daniel (1988); Historical unrest at large calderas of the world, USGS Bulletin 1855, p.&nbsp;1108 [https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/b/b1855] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512220458/http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/b/b1855 |date=2009-05-12 }}
*Siebert L., and Simkin T. (2002–). Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions. Smithsonian Institution, [[Earth:Global Volcanism Program|Global Volcanism Program]], Digital Information Series, GVP-3, (http://www.volcano.si.edu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024175830/http://volcano.si.edu/ |date=2012-10-24 }}).
*{{cite book
 | title = Volcanoes of the World
 | year = 1994
 | publisher = Geoscience Press, Tucson, 2nd edition
 | pages= 349
 | isbn = 978-0-945005-12-4
 |author1=Simkin T. |author2=Siebert L.  |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite book
 |author1=Simkin T. |author2=Siebert L.  |name-list-style=amp | contribution = Earth's volcanoes and eruptions: an overview
 | editor = Sigurdsson, H.
 | title = Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
 | pages = 249–261
 | publisher = Academic Press
 | place = San Diego
 | year = 2000
 }}
*{{cite book |last       = Simkin
 |first      = T.
 |author2    = Siebert L.
 |author3    = McClelland L.
 |author4    = Bridge D.
 |author5    = Newhall C.
 |author6    = Latter J.H.
 |year       = 1981
 |title      = Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years
 |publisher  = Hutchinson-Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania
 |pages      = [https://archive.org/details/volcanoesofworld0000unse/page/232 232]
 |isbn       = 978-0-87933-408-6
 |url-access = registration
 |url        = https://archive.org/details/volcanoesofworld0000unse/page/232
}} 
*{{cite journal|last= Stern
 |first= Charles R.
 |date= December 2004
 |title= Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting
 |journal= Revista Geológica de Chile
 |volume= 31
 |issue= 2
 |pages= 161–206
 |doi = 10.4067/S0716-02082004000200001 |doi-access= free
 }}
*United States Geological Survey; [[Earth:Cascades Volcano Observatory|Cascades Volcano Observatory]], Vancouver, Washington; [http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/framework.html Index to CVO online volcanoes]
**Map: Tom Simkin, Robert I. Tilling, Peter R. Vogt, Stephen H. Kirby, Paul Kimberly, and David B. Stewart, Third Edition (Published 2006) [http://mineralsciences.si.edu/tdpmap/ interactive world map of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics]<!-- http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/2800/ -->
*{{cite journal|author=Ward, Peter L. |date=2 April 2009 |title=Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways |journal=Thin Solid Films |volume=517 |issue=11 |pages=3188–3203 |doi=10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005 |url=http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/SO2InitiatesClimateChange.pdf |accessdate=2010-03-19 |bibcode=2009TSF...517.3188W |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120022421/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/SO2InitiatesClimateChange.pdf |archive-date=20 January 2010 }}
**Supplementary Table I: {{cite web
 |url=http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf 
 |title=Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces 
 |publisher=Teton Tectonics 
 |accessdate=2010-03-16 
 |url-status=dead 
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120021410/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf 
 |archive-date=2010-01-20 
}}
**Supplementary Table II: {{cite web
 |url         = http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1_References.pdf
 |title       = Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)
 |publisher   = Teton Tectonics
 |accessdate  = 2010-03-16
 |url-status  = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20100120022442/http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1_References.pdf
 |archive-date = 2010-01-20
}}

==External links==
* [http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/ Volcano World Information]
* [http://www.volcanolive.com/index.html Volcano Live, John Seach]
* [http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/volcanoes/holocene/main/main.htm Holocene Volcanoes in karan
* [http://www.volcano.group.cam.ac.uk/database/caldera-results.xls Reference Database of the International Association of Volcanology (XLS file)]
* [http://www.volcano.group.cam.ac.uk/database/ignimbrite-results.xls Reference Database of Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (XLS file)]
* [ftp://ftp.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/paleo/icecore/greenland/summit/gisp2/chem/volcano.txt Volcanic sulfate record in the GISP2 core (ftp protocol)]

{{List of volcanoes}}

[[Catego karan

[[Category:Complex volcanoes]]
[[Category:Supervolcanoes|*]]
[[Category:Pleistocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Pliocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Miocene volcanism]]

{{Sourceattribution|Timeline of volcanism on Earth}}