Earth:Timeline of volcanism on Earth

From HandWiki
Short description: None

This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed.

Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption.[1][2] Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone.

Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.

In addition to the events listed below, there are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula,[3] which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.[4]

Large Quaternary eruptions

Main page: Earth:List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions

The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP (10,000 14C years ago).[5]

1000–2000 AD

  • Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI 6; 6 to 16 km3 (1.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 20,000,000 tonnes (22,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted[2]
  • Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI 6; 13 to 15 km3 (3.1 to 3.6 cu mi) of lavaCite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag
  • Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[7]
  • Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI 7; 160–213 km3 (38–51 cu mi) of tephra;[8][6] an estimated 200,000,000 t (220,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer"[9]
  • 1808 mystery eruption, VEI 6–7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s.[10][11][12]
  • Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI 2; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of lava, an estimated 120,000,000 t (130,000,000 short tons) of SO2 were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere.[13][14]
  • Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, February 19; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[15]
  • Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI 6; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • Bárðarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI 6; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • 1465 mystery eruption "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant ice core records and atmospheric events around the time of King Alfonso II of Naples's wedding; it is believed to have been VEI 7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815.[16][17]
  • 1452/1453 mystery eruption in the New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant ice core records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96 km3 (8.6 to 23.0 cu mi) of tephra; 175,000,000–700,000,000 t (193,000,000–772,000,000 short tons) of sulfuric acid[18][19][20]
  • 1280(?) in Quilotoa, Ecuador; VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • 1257 Samalas eruption, Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40 km3 (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic Ice cores provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano.[21][22]

Overview of Common Era

This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.

Caldera/ Eruption name Volcanic arc/ belt
or Subregion or Hotspot		 VEI Date Known/proposed consequences
Mount Pinatubo Luzon Volcanic Arc 6 1991, Jun 15 Global temperature fell by 0.4 °C
Novarupta Aleutian Range 6 1912, Jun 6
Santa María Central America Volcanic Arc 6 1902, Oct 24
Krakatoa Sunda Arc 6 1883, Aug 26–27 At least 30,000 dead
Mount Tambora Lesser Sunda Islands 7 1815, Apr 10 Year Without a Summer (1816)
1808 mystery eruption Southwestern Pacific Ocean 6 1808, Dec A sulfate spike in ice cores
Long Island (Papua New Guinea) Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 1660
Huaynaputina Andes, Central Volcanic Zone 6 1600, Feb 19 Russian famine of 1601–1603
Billy Mitchell Bougainville & Solomon Is. 6 1580
Bárðarbunga Iceland 6 1477
1458 mystery eruption unknown 6-7 1458 Possibly larger than Mount Tambora's
1452/1453 mystery eruption Unknown 6-7 1452–53 2nd pulse[23] of Little Ice Age?
Quilotoa Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone 6 1280
Samalas (Mount Rinjani) Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands 7 1257 1257 Samalas eruption, 1st pulse[24][25] of Little Ice Age? (c.1250)
Baekdu Mountain/Tianchi eruption China / North Korea border 7 946, Nov-947 Limited regional climatic effects.[26]
Ceboruco Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt 6 930
Dakataua Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 800
Pago Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 710
Mount Churchill eastern Alaska, USA 6 700
Rabaul caldera Bismarck Volcanic Arc 6 683 (est.)
Volcanic winter of 536 Krakatoa 6-7 535
Ilopango Central America Volcanic Arc 6 450
Ksudach Kamchatka Peninsula 6 240
Taupō Caldera/Hatepe eruption Taupō Volcano 7 180 or 230 Affected skies over Rome and China
Mount Churchill eastern Alaska, USA 6 60
Ambrym New Hebrides Arc 6 50
Apoyeque Central America Volcanic Arc 6 50 BC (±100)

Note: Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Ōkataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, and Tarawera volcanic complex all had the same magma source in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field all had Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.

Earlier Quaternary eruptions

2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.

  • Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9 ka; VEI 6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4 cu mi) of tephra.[27][28][29][30]
  • Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 17 ka ±5; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17 ka.
  • Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29 ka[6]
  • Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI 6; 30 ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite).[31]
  • Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption).
  • Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5 ka; VEI 7[6]
  • Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8 km), West Sumatra; VEI 7; around 52 ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (52.8 to 60.0 cu mi) of tephra.[32]
  • Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI 8; 73 ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7 cu mi) of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff).[2][33][34][35][36]
  • Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20 km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84 ka; VEI 7; 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of tephra.[37]
  • Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more than 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of tephra.[4][38]
  • Sierra la Primavera volcanic complex (size: 11 km wide), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 95 ka; 20 cubic kilometers (5 cu mi) of Tala Tuff.[4][39]
  • Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 120 ka; 80 km3 (19 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 140 ka; 80 km3 (19 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Puy de Sancy, Massif Central, central France; it is part of an ancient stratovolcano which has been inactive for about 220,000 years.
  • Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 233 ka; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; caldera formed as a result of four huge caldera eruptions; 270 ka; 80 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Uzon-Geyzernaya calderas (size: 9 x 18 km), Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; 325–175 ka[40] 20 km3 (4.8 cu mi) of ignimbrite deposits.[41]
  • Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex (size: 20 x 16 km), Argentina-Chile; 450 ka; 450 cubic kilometers (108 cu mi) of tephra.[4][42]
  • Yellowstone hotspot; Yellowstone Caldera (size: 45 x 85 km); 640 ka; VEI 8; more than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cu mi) of tephra (Lava Creek Tuff)[6]
  • Three Sisters (Oregon), USA; Tumalo volcanic center; with eruptions from 600–700 to 170 ka years ago
  • Uinkaret volcanic field, Arizona, USA; the Colorado River was dammed by lava flows multiple times from 725 to 100 ka.[43]
  • Mono County, California, USA; Long Valley Caldera; 758.9 ka ±1.8; VEI 7; 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of Bishop Tuff.[4][44]
  • Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.25 Ma; VEI 7; around 600 cubic kilometers (144 cu mi) of the Tshirege Member (Upper Bandelier Tuff) eruption.[4][45][46][47]
  • Sutter Buttes, Central Valley of California, USA; were formed over 1.5 Ma by a now-extinct volcano.
  • Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA; 1.61 Ma; VEI 7; over 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of the Otowi Member (Lower Bandelier Tuff) eruption.[47]
  • Ebisutoge-Fukuda tephras, Japan; 1.75 Ma; 380 to 490 cubic kilometers (91.2 to 117.6 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Yellowstone hotspot; Island Park Caldera (size: 100 x 50 km); 2.1 Ma; VEI 8; 2,450 cubic kilometers (588 cu mi) of Huckleberry Ridge Tuff.[4][6]
  • Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 2.2 Ma; VEI 8; 1,050 cubic kilometers (252 cu mi) of Cerro Galán Ignimbrite.[48]

Large Neogene eruptions

Pliocene eruptions

Approximately 5.332 million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.Lua error in Module:Location_map/multi at line 143: Unable to find the specified location map definition: "Module:Location map/data/Nevada" does not exist.

Lua error in Module:Location_map/multi at line 143: Unable to find the specified location map definition: "Module:Location map/data/Colorado" does not exist.

Timeline of volcanism on Earth is located in New Mexico
Valles
Valles
Socorro
Socorro
Potrillo
Potrillo
Zuni-Bandera
Zuni-Bandera
Carizzozo
Carizzozo
class=notpageimage|
New Mexico volcanism. Links: Valles, Socorro, Potrillo, Carrizozo, and Zuni-Bandera.
  • Boring Lava Field, Boring, Oregon, USA; the zone became active at least 2.7 Ma, and has been extinct for about 300,000 years.[49]
  • Norfolk Island, Australia; remnant of a basaltic volcano active around 2.3 to 3 Ma.[50]
  • Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex, Bolivia; 2.9 Ma; VEI 7; more than 820 cubic kilometers (197 cu mi) of Pastos Grandes Ignimbrite.[51]
  • Little Barrier Island, northeastern coast of New Zealand's North Island; it erupted from 1 million to 3 Ma.[52]
  • Mount Kenya; a stratovolcano created approximately 3 Ma after the opening of the East African rift.[53]
  • Pacana Caldera (size: 60 x 35 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, northern Chile; 4 Ma; VEI 8; 2,500 cubic kilometers (600 cu mi) of Atana Ignimbrite.[54]
  • Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 4 Ma; 620 cubic kilometers (149 cu mi) of Frailes Ignimbrite E.[4][55]
  • Cerro Galán (size: 32 km wide), Catamarca Province, northwestern Argentina; 4.2 Ma; 510 cubic kilometers (122 cu mi) of Real Grande and Cueva Negra tephra.[4]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Kilgore Caldera (size: 80 x 60 km); VEI 8; 1,800 cubic kilometers (432 cu mi) of Kilgore Tuff; 4.45 Ma ±0.05.[4][56]
  • Khari Khari Caldera, Frailes Plateau, Bolivia; 5 Ma; 470 cubic kilometers (113 cu mi) of tephra.[4]

Miocene eruptions

The final eruptions in the creation of Banks Peninsula in New Zealand occurred about 9 million years ago.
A major eruption of Gran Canaria took place around 14 million years ago.

Approximately 23.03 million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin.

  • Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite).[57]
  • Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma.[58]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff).[56]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff.[4]
  • Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite.[4][59]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff).[56]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff.[4][56]
  • Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite.[4]
  • Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma
  • Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma.[60]
  • Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10 Ma.[61]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Grey's Landing Supereruption, Idaho; 8.72 Ma, 2,800 cubic kilometers (672 cu mi) of Grey's Landing Ignimbrite.[62]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McMullen Supereruption, Idaho; 8.99 Ma, 1,700 cubic kilometers (408 cu mi) of volcanic material[62]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21 Ma ± 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff).[56]
  • Mount Cargill, New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10 Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of Dunedin. Much of the caldera is filled by Otago Harbour.[63][64][65]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field; 10.0 to 12.5 Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption).[61]
  • Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9 Ma.[61][66]
  • Tejeda Caldera, Gran Canaria, Spain; 13.9 Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10 km from the caldera center[67]
  • Gran Canaria shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14 Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts[68]
  • Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9 Ma; 79 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff.[4]
  • Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15 Ma ±1; 1,100 cubic kilometers (264 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15 km wide), Oregon; 15 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Whitehorse Creek Tuff.[4][69]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5 Ma.[70]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 10–15 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 350 cubic kilometers (84 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 2–3.[4][61][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 400 cubic kilometers (96 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 5.[4][61][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7 Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (72 cu mi) of Double H Tuff.[4][61][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16 Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.[72]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10 km), Oregon; 15.8 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.[4][69][72]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548 Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (60 cu mi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff.[4][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5 Ma.[73]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14 to 17 Ma; 180,000 cubic kilometers (43,184 cu mi) of lava.[4][74][75][76][77][78][79][80]
  • Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17 Ma after 4 million years of activity.
  • Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18°S); 19 Ma; 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Pemberton Volcanic Belt was erupting about 21 to 22 Ma.[81]

Volcanism before the Neogene

Distribution of selected hotspots. The numbers in the figure are related to the listed hotspots on Hotspot (geology).
  • Paleogene ends 23 million years ago.
    • The formation of the Chilcotin Group basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago.
    • The formation of the Columbia River Basalt Group occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago.
    • La Garita Caldera erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), 5,000 cubic kilometers (1,200 cu mi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago.[48][82][83]
    • Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of Green Tuff and SAM.[4]
    • Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least 5,550 cubic kilometers (1,332 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[84]
    • Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least 3,700 cubic kilometers (888 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites.[84]
    • The Ethiopian Highlands flood basalt begins 30 million years ago
  • About 33.9 million ago, the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene period begins
    • The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up begins 40 million years ago and lasts until 25 million years ago.
    • Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex erupts 50 million years ago with a VEI 7 850 cubic kilometers (204 cu mi) of tephra.[85]
    • Canary hotspot is believed to have first appeared about 60 million years ago.
    • Formation of the Brito-Arctic province begins 61 million years ago
    • Réunion hotspot, Deccan Traps, India, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago which are thought to have played a role in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.
    • The Louisville hotspot has produced the Louisville Ridge, it is active for at least 80 million years. It may have originated the Ontong Java Plateau around 120 million years ago.
    • Hawaii hotspot, Meiji Seamount is the oldest extant seamount in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, with an estimated age of 82 million years.
    • The Kerguelen Plateau begins forming 110 million years ago.
    • The Rahjamal Traps form from 117 to 116 million years ago.
    • The Ontong Java Plateau forms from 125 to 120 million years ago
    • Paraná and Etendeka traps, Brazil, Namibia and Angola form 128 to 138 million years ago. 132 million years ago, a possible supervolcanic eruption occurred, ejecting 8,600 cubic kilometers (2,063 cu mi).[86]
    • Formation of the Karoo-Ferrar flood basalts begins 183 million years ago.
  • The flood basalts of the Central Atlantic magmatic province are thought to have contributed to the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event about 199 million years ago.
  • The Siberian Traps are thought to have played a significant role in the Permian–Triassic extinction event 252 million years ago.
    • Formation of the Emeishan Traps began 260 million years ago.
  • The Late Devonian extinction occurs about 374 million years ago.
  • The Ordovician–Silurian extinction event occurs between 450 and 440 million years ago.
    • Glen Coe, Scotland; VEI 8; 420 million years ago
    • Scafells, Lake District, England; VEI 8; Ordovician (488.3–443.7 million years ago).
    • Flat Landing Brook; VEI 8, A Supervolcanic eruption occurred 466 million years ago, as it erupted in one of the largest explosive volcanic eruptions known in Earth's history with a volume of ejecta at around 2,000–12,000 cubic kilometers (480–2,879 cu mi).
  • The Phanerozoic eon begins 539 million years ago.[87]
  • Approximately 2,500 million years ago, the Proterozoic eon of the Precambrian period begins
  • About 3,800 million years ago, the Archean eon of the Precambrian period begins

Notes

  • The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth.[89] The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2,700,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi).[90]
  • The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado.
  • The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system.[91] The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2 mm/year.[92][93]
  • The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis Valley caldera complex, Crater Flat Group, and Yucca Mountain. Towns nearby: Beatty, Mercury, Goldfield.[94] It is aligned as a Crater Flat volcanic field, Réveille Range, Lunar Crater volcanic field, Zone (CFLC).[95] The Marysvale Volcanic Field, southwestern Utah is nearby too.
  • McDermitt volcanic field, or Orevada rift volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon, nearby are: McDermitt, Trout Creek Mountains, Bilk Creek Mountains, Steens Mountain, Jordan Meadow Mountain (6,816 ft), Long Ridge, Trout Creek, and Whitehorse Creek.
  • Emmons Lake stratovolcano (caldera size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, was formed through six eruptions. Mount Emmons, Mount Hague, and Double Crater are post-caldera cones.[6]
  • The topography of the Basin and Range Province is a result of crustal extension within this part of the North American Plate (rifting of the North American craton or Laurentia from Western North America; e.g. Gulf of California, Rio Grande rift, Oregon-Idaho graben). The crust here has been stretched up to 100% of its original width.[96] In fact, the crust underneath the Basin and Range, especially under the Great Basin (includes Nevada), is some of the thinnest in the world.
  • Topographically visible calderas: South part of the McDermitt volcanic field (four overlapping and nested calderas), West of McDermitt; Cochetopa Park Caldera, West of the North Pass; Henry's Fork Caldera; Banks Peninsula, New Zealand (Photo) and Valles Caldera. Newer drawings show McDermitt volcanic field (South), as five overlapping and nested calderas. Hoppin Peaks Caldera is included too.
  • Repose periods: Toba (0.38 Ma),[35] Valles Caldera (0.35 Ma),[97][98] Yellowstone Caldera (0.7 Ma).[99]
  • Kiloannum (ka), is a unit of time equal to one thousand years. Megaannum (Ma), is a unit of time equal to one million years, one can assume that "ago" is implied.

Volcanic explosivity index (VEI)

Main page: Earth:Volcanic explosivity index
VEI and ejecta volume correlation
VEI Tephra Volume
(cubic kilometers)		 Example
0 Effusive Masaya Volcano, Nicaragua, 1570
1 >0.00001 Poás Volcano, Costa Rica, 1991
2 >0.001 Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand, 1971
3 >0.01 Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985
4 >0.1 Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, 2010
5 >1 Mount St. Helens, United States , 1980
6 >10 Mount Pinatubo, Philippines , 1991
7 >100 Mount Tambora, Indonesia, 1815
8 >1000 Yellowstone Caldera, United States , Pleistocene

       

Volcanic dimming

Main page: Earth:Global dimming

The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.[100][101][102] When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10 °C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs ultraviolet.[103] Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer.[104] The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.[105] Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigüina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichón (1982), and the 1808 mystery eruption.[106] And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions:[107]

 

But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down.[1]

  • Location of Mount Pinatubo, showing area over which ash from the 1991 eruption fell.

  • Satellite measurements of ash and aerosol emissions from Mount Pinatubo.

  • MLO transmission ratio - Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions

  • NASA, Global Dimming - El Chichon, VEI 5; Pinatubo, VEI 6.

  • Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes. Mount Pinatubo: 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide.

  • TOMS sulfur dioxide from the June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.

  • Sarychev Peak: the sulphur dioxide cloud generated by the eruption on June 12, 2009 (in Dobson units).

Map gallery

  • Yellowstone sits on top of four overlapping calderas. (US NPS)

  • Diagram of Island Park and Henry's Fork Caldera.

  • Harney Basin, Steens Mountain, Owyhee and Malheur River.[79]

  • Steens Mountain, McDermitt volcanic field and Oregon/ Nevada stateline.

  • Location of Yellowstone Hotspot in Millions of Years Ago.

  • Snake River Plain, image from NASA's Aqua satellite, 2008

  • Location of Yucca Mountain in southern Nevada, to the west of the Nevada Test Site.

  • Jemez Ranger District and Jemez Mountains, Santa Fe National Forest.

See also


References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways". Thin Solid Films 517 (11): 3188–3203. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Bibcode: 2009TSF...517.3188W. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Robock, A.; C.M. Ammann; L. Oman; D. Shindell; S. Levis; G. Stenchikov (2009). "Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ~74k BP produce widespread glaciation?". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (D10): D10107. doi:10.1029/2008JD011652. Bibcode: 2009JGRD..11410107R. 
  3. ↑ "Holocene Kamchatka volcanoes". Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/volcanoes/holocene/main/main.htm. 
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces". Teton Tectonics. http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate/Table_S1.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  5. ↑ "International Stratigraphic Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. http://www.stratigraphy.org/upload/ISChart2009.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-23. 
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm Large Holocene Eruptions
  7. ↑ Hopkinson, Deborah (January 2004). "The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883". Storyworks (New York) 11 (4): 8. http://teacher.scholastic.com/activities/wwatch/volcanoes/witnesses.htm. 
  8. ↑ http://www.kscnet.ru/ivs/bibl/vulk/kuozero/Pon-KurileLake.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  9. ↑ "Tambora". http://www.earlham.edu/~ethribe/web/tambora.htm. 
  10. ↑ University of Bristol (19 September 2014). "First eyewitness accounts of mystery volcanic eruption" (Press release). Archived from the original on 10 December 2014.
  11. ↑ "Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810–1819". https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091205105844.htm. 
  12. ↑ Guevara-Murua, A.; Williams, C. A.; Hendy, E. J.; Rust, A. C.; Cashman, K. V. (2014). "Observations of a stratospheric aerosol veil from a tropical volcanic eruption in December 1808: is this the "Unknown" ~1809 eruption?". Climate of the Past Discussions 10 (2): 1901–1932. doi:10.5194/cpd-10-1901-2014. ISSN 1814-9359. Bibcode: 2014CliPa..10.1707G. https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/ws/files/124748345/cp_10_1707_2014.pdf. 
  13. ↑ "BBC Two - Timewatch". https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006qjlw. 
  14. ↑ "Global Volcanism Program | Grímsvötn". https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=373010. 
  15. ↑ "Huaynaputina". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=354030. 
  16. ↑ "The massive volcano that scientists can't find". http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170630-the-massive-volcano-that-scientists-cant-find. 
  17. ↑ Bauch, Martin (2017). "The day the sun turned blue. A volcanic eruption in the early 1460s and its putative climatic impact – a globally perceived volcanic disaster in the Late Middle Ages?". Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context: 107. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49163-9_6. https://www.academia.edu/14139518. 
  18. ↑ Nemeth, Karoly; Shane J. Cronin; James D.L. White (2007). "Kuwae caldera and climate confusion". The Open Geology Journal 1 (5): 7–11. doi:10.2174/1874262900701010007. Bibcode: 2007OGJ.....1....7N. 
  19. ↑ Gao, Chaochao; A. Robock; S. Self; J. B. Witter; J. P. Steffenson; H. B. Clausen; M.-L. Siggaard-Andersen; S. Johnsen et al. (27 June 2006). "The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae eruption signal derived from multiple ice core records: Greatest volcanic sulfate event of the past 700 years". Journal of Geophysical Research 111 (D12): D12107. doi:10.1029/2005JD006710. Bibcode: 2006JGRD..11112107G. 
  20. ↑ Witter, J.B.; Self S. (January 2007). "The Kuwae (Vanuatu) eruption of AD 1452: potential magnitude and volatile release". Bulletin of Volcanology 69 (3): 301–318. doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0075-4. Bibcode: 2007BVol...69..301W. 
  21. ↑ Lavigne, Franck (4 September 2013). "Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (42): 16742–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307520110. PMID 24082132. Bibcode: 2013PNAS..11016742L. 
  22. ↑ "Mystery 13th Century eruption traced to Lombok, Indonesia". BBC News. 30 September 2013. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24332239. Retrieved 1 October 2013. 
  23. ↑ Miller et al. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" Geophysical Research Letters 39, January 31
  24. ↑ Lavigne, Franck (2013). "Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia". PNAS 110 (42): 16742–16747. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307520110. PMID 24082132. Bibcode: 2013PNAS..11016742L. 
  25. ↑ Was the Little Ice Age Triggered by Massive Volcanic Eruptions? ScienceDaily, 30 January 2012 (accessed 21 May 2012)
  26. ↑ Jiandong Xu et al. 2013. "Climatic impact of the Millennium eruption of Changbaishan volcano in China: New insights from high-precision radiocarbon wiggle-match dating" Geophysical Research Letters 40 http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:162055/CONTENT/XU_et_al_2013_GRL.pdf
  27. ↑ van den Bogaard, P (1995). 40Ar/(39Ar) ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance
  28. ↑ De Klerk, Pim; Janke, Wolfgang; Kühn, Peter; Theuerkauf, Martin (2008). "Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany)". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 270 (1–2): 196–214. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.013. Bibcode: 2008PPP...270..196D. 
  29. ↑ Baales, Michael; Jöris, Olaf; Street, Martin; Bittmann, Felix; Weninger, Bernhard; Wiethold, Julian (November 2002). "Impact of the Late Glacial Eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, Central Rhineland, Germany". Quaternary Research 58 (3): 273–288. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2379. Bibcode: 2002QuRes..58..273B. 
  30. ↑ Forscher warnen vor Vulkan-Gefahr in der Eifel. Spiegel Online, 13. February 2007. Retrieved January 11, 2008
  31. ↑ Carey, Steven N.; Sigurdsson, Haraldur (1980). "The Roseau Ash: Deep-sea Tephra Deposits from a Major Eruption on Dominica, Lesser Antilles Arc". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 7 (1–2): 67–86. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90020-7. Bibcode: 1980JVGR....7...67C. 
  32. ↑ Alloway, Brent V.; Agung Pribadi; John A. Westgate; Michael Bird; L. Keith Fifield; Alan Hogg; Ian Smith (30 October 2004). "Correspondence between glass-FT and 14C ages of silicic pyroclastic flow deposits sourced from Maninjau caldera, west-central Sumatra". Earth and Planetary Science Letters (Elsevier) 227 (1–2): 121–133. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.014. Bibcode: 2004E&PSL.227..121A. 
  33. ↑ Twickler and K. Taylor, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996). "Potential Atmospheric impact of the Toba mega-eruption ~71'000 years ago". Geophysical Research Letters (American Geophysical Union) 23 (8): 837–840. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. Bibcode: 1996GeoRL..23..837Z. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1192&context=ers_facpub. 
  34. ↑ Jones, S.C. (2007) The Toba supervolcanic eruption: Tephra-fall deposits in India and Paleoanthropological implications; in The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (eds.) M D Petraglia and B Allchin (New York: Springer Press) pp. 173–200
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Chesner, C.A.; Westgate, J.A.; Rose, W.I.; Drake, R.; Deino, A. (March 1991). "Eruptive History of Earth's Largest Quaternary caldera (Toba, Indonesia) Clarified". Geology 19 (3): 200–203. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0200:EHOESL>2.3.CO;2. Bibcode: 1991Geo....19..200C. http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/ChesnerGeology.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-20. 
  36. ↑ Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra". Nature (Nature Publishing Group) 276 (5688): 574–577. doi:10.1038/276574a0. Bibcode: 1978Natur.276..574N. 
  37. ↑ "Guatemala Volcanoes and Volcanics". USGS - CVO. http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Guatemala/description_guatemala_volcanoes.html. Retrieved 2010-03-13. 
  38. ↑ "Cities on Volcanoes 5". http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/COV5/main.html. 
  39. ↑ "Sierra la Primavera". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=341820. 
  40. ↑ "GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE UZON CALDERA, KAMCHATKA, FAR EAST RUSSIA". http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_78738.htm. 
  41. ↑ Uzon, Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution
  42. ↑ Sruoga, Patricia; Eduardo J. Llambías; Luis Fauqué; David Schonwandt; David G. Repol (September 2005). "Volcanological and geochemical evolution of the Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex in the southern Andes of Argentina (34°10′S)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences 19 (4): 399–414. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2005.06.003. Bibcode: 2005JSAES..19..399S. 
  43. ↑ Karlstrom, K.; Crow, R.; Peters, L.; McIntosh, W.; Raucci, J.; Crossey, L.; Umhoefer, P. (2007). "40Ar/39Ar and field studies of Quaternary basalts in Grand Canyon and model for carving Grand Canyon: Quantifying the interaction of river incision and normal faulting across the western edge of the Colorado Plateau". GSA Bulletin 119 (11/12): 1283–1312. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2007)119[1283:AAFSOQ2.0.CO;2]. Bibcode: 2007GSAB..119.1283K. 
  44. ↑ Hildreth, W. (1979), Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (2000).
  45. ↑ Izett, Glen A. (1981).
  46. ↑ Heiken et al. (1990).
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Wolff, J. A.; Ramos, F. C. (2013-12-18). "Processes in Caldera-Forming High-Silica Rhyolite Magma: Rb-Sr and Pb Isotope Systematics of the Otowi Member of the Bandelier Tuff, Valles Caldera, New Mexico, USA". Journal of Petrology 55 (2): 345–375. doi:10.1093/petrology/egt070. ISSN 0022-3530. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Ben G. Mason; David M. Pyle; Clive Oppenheimer (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology 66 (8): 735–748. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. Bibcode: 2004BVol...66..735M. 
  49. ↑ Wood, Charles A.; Jűrgen Kienle (1990). Volcanoes of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 170–172. 
  50. ↑ Geological origins , Norfolk Island Tourism. Accessed 2007-04-13.
  51. ↑ Ort, M. H.; de Silva, S.; Jiminez, N.; Salisbury, M.; Jicha, B. R. and Singer, B. S. (2009). Two new supereruptions in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes .
  52. ↑ Lindsay, Jan M.; Tim J. Worthington; Ian E. M. Smith; Philippa M. Black (June 1999). "Geology, petrology, and petrogenesis of Little Barrier Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 42 (2): 155–168. doi:10.1080/00288306.1999.9514837. http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1999/11.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-03. 
  53. ↑ Philippe Nonnotte. "Étude volcano-tectonique de la zone de divergence Nord-Tanzanienne (terminaison sud du rift kenyan) – Caractérisation pétrologique et géochimique du volcanisme récent (8 Ma – Actuel) et du manteau source – Contraintes de mise en place thèse de doctorat de l'université de Bretagne occidentale, spécialité : géosciences marines". http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/90/18/PDF/These_P.Nonnotte_web.pdf. 
  54. ↑ Lindsay J. M.; de Silva S.; Trumbull R.; Emmermann R.; Wemmer K. (2001). "La Pacana caldera, N. Chile: a re-evaluation of the stratigraphy and volcanology of one of the world's largest resurgent calderas". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 106 (1–2): 145–173. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00270-5. Bibcode: 2001JVGR..106..145L. 
  55. ↑ "Frailes Plateau". http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/CVZ/frailes/index.html. [no|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 56.4 Morgan, Lisa A. Morgan; William C. McIntosh (March 2005). "Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA". GSA Bulletin 117 (3–4): 288–306. doi:10.1130/B25519.1. Bibcode: 2005GSAB..117..288M. http://www.rcn.montana.edu/pubs/pdf/2005/GSA_Heise_final.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  57. ↑ Salisbury, M. J.; Jicha, B. R.; de Silva, S. L.; Singer, B. S.; Jimenez, N. C.; Ort, M. H. (21 December 2010). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province". Geological Society of America Bulletin 123 (5–6): 821–840. doi:10.1130/B30280.1. Bibcode: 2011GSAB..123..821S. 
  58. ↑ Geography and Geology , Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. Retrieved on 2009-04-20.
  59. ↑ "Cerro Panizos". Volcano World. http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/CVZ/panizos/index.html. Retrieved 2010-03-15.  [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  60. ↑ Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 61.5 "Mark Anders: Yellowstone hotspot track". Columbia University, Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO). http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~manders/SRP_erupt.html. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Knott, Thomas; Branney, M.; Reichow, Marc; Finn, David; Tapster, Simon; Coe, Robert (June 2020). "Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning?". Geology 48 (9): 934–938. doi:10.1130/G47384.1. Bibcode: 2020Geo....48..934K. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341810855. Retrieved 21 June 2022. 
  63. ↑ Coombs, D. S., Dunedin Volcano, Misc. Publ. 37B, pp. 2–28, Geol. Soc. of N. Z., Dunedin, 1987.
  64. ↑ Coombs, D. S., R. A. Cas, Y. Kawachi, C. A. Landis, W. F. Mc-Donough, and A. Reay, Cenozoic volcanism in north, east and central Otago, Bull. R. Soc. N. Z., 23, 278–312, 1986.
  65. ↑ Bishop, D.G., and Turnbull, I.M. (compilers) (1996). Geology of the Dunedin Area. Lower Hutt, NZ: Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences. ISBN:0-478-09521-X.
  66. ↑ Sawyer, David A.; R. J. Fleck; M. A. Lanphere; R. G. Warren; D. E. Broxton; Mark R. Hudson (October 1994). "Episodic caldera volcanism in the Miocene southwestern Nevada volcanic field: Revised stratigraphic framework, 40Ar/39Ar geochronology, and implications for magmatism and extension". Geological Society of America Bulletin 106 (10): 1304–1318. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1994)106<1304:ECVITM>2.3.CO;2. Bibcode: 1994GSAB..106.1304S. 
  67. ↑ http://www-odp.tamu.edu/Publications/157_SR/VOLUME/CHAP_14.PDF [bare URL PDF]
  68. ↑ "The Geology of the Canary Islands - 1st Edition". https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-geology-of-the-canary-islands/troll/978-0-12-809663-5. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 69.5 Lipman, P.W. (September 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (B10): 8801–8841. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. Bibcode: 1984JGR....89.8801L. 
  70. ↑ Rytuba, James J.; John, David A.; McKee, Edwin H.. "Volcanism Associated with Eruption of the Steens Basalt and Inception of the Yellowstone Hotspot". Rocky Mountain (56th Annual) and Cordilleran (100th Annual) Joint Meeting (May 3–5, 2004). Paper No. 44-2. http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004RM/finalprogram/abstract_72657.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-26. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 Steve Ludington; Dennis P. Cox; Kenneth W. Leonard; Barry C. Moring (1996). "Chapter 5, Cenozoic Volcanic Geology in Nevada". in Donald A. Singer. An Analysis of Nevada's Metal-Bearing Mineral Resources. Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, University of Nevada. http://www.nbmg.unr.edu/dox/ofr962/c5.pdf. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Rytuba, J.J.; McKee, E.H. (1984). "Peralkaline ash flow tuffs and calderas of the McDermitt Volcanic Field, southwest Oregon and north central Nevada". Journal of Geophysical Research 89 (B10): 8616–8628. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08616. Bibcode: 1984JGR....89.8616R. http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1984/JB089iB10p08616.shtml. Retrieved 2010-03-23. 
  73. ↑ Matthew A. Coble; Gail A. Mahood (2008). "New geologic evidence for additional 16.5–15.5 Ma silicic calderas in northwest Nevada related to initial impingement of the Yellowstone hot spot". Earth and Environmental Science. 3. Collapse Calderas Workshop, IOP Conf. Series. pp. 012002. doi:10.1088/1755-1307/3/1/012002. Bibcode: 2008E&ES....3a2002C. 
  74. ↑ Carson, Robert J.; Pogue, Kevin R. (1996). Flood Basalts and Glacier Floods:Roadside Geology of Parts of Walla Walla, Franklin, and Columbia Counties, Washington. Washington State Department of Natural Resources (Washington Division of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 90). 
  75. ↑ Reidel, Stephen P. (2005). "A Lava Flow without a Source: The Cohasset Flow and Its Compositional Members". The Journal of Geology 113 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1086/425966. Bibcode: 2005JG....113....1R. 
  76. ↑ Brueseke, M.E.; Heizler, M.T.; Hart, W.K.; S.A. Mertzman (15 March 2007). "Distribution and geochronology of Oregon Plateau (U.S.A.) flood basalt volcanism: The Steens Basalt revisited". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 161 (3): 187–214. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2006.12.004. Bibcode: 2007JVGR..161..187B. 
  77. ↑ SummitPost.org, Southeast Oregon Basin and Range
  78. ↑ USGS, Andesitic and basaltic rocks on Steens Mountain
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 GeoScienceWorld, Genesis of flood basalts and Basin and Range volcanic rocks from Steens Mountain to the Malheur River Gorge, Oregon
  80. ↑ "Oregon: A Geologic History. 8. Columbia River Basalt: the Yellowstone hot spot arrives in a flood of fire". Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. http://www.oregongeology.com/sub/publications/ims/ims-028/unit08.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-26. 
  81. ↑ Madsen, J.K.; Thorkelson, D.J.; Friedman, R.M.; Marshall, D.D. (6 May 2018). "Cenozoic to Recent plate configurations in the Pacific Basin: Ridge subduction and slab window magmatism in western North America". Geosphere 2 (1): 11. doi:10.1130/ges00020.1. Bibcode: 2006Geosp...2...11M. 
  82. ↑ Largest explosive eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado
  83. ↑ Olivier Bachmann; Michael A. Dungan; Peter W. Lipman (2002). "The Fish Canyon Magma Body, San Juan Volcanic Field, Colorado: Rejuvenation and Eruption of an Upper-Crustal Batholith". Journal of Petrology 43 (8): 1469–1503. doi:10.1093/petrology/43.8.1469. Bibcode: 2002JPet...43.1469B. http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/43/8/1469. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Ingrid Ukstins Peate; Joel A. Baker; Mohamed Al-Kadasi; Abdulkarim Al-Subbary; Kim B. Knight; Peter Riisager; Matthew F. Thirlwall; David W. Peate et al. (2005). "Volcanic stratigraphy of large-volume silicic pyroclastic eruptions during Oligocene Afro-Arabian flood volcanism in Yemen". Bulletin of Volcanology 68 (2): 135–156. doi:10.1007/s00445-005-0428-4. Bibcode: 2005BVol...68..135P. .
  85. ↑ George A. Morris; Robert A. Creaser (2003). "Crustal recycling during subduction at the Eocene Cordilleran margin of North America: a petrogenetic study from the southwestern Yukon". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 40 (12): 1805–1821. doi:10.1139/e03-063. Bibcode: 2003CaJES..40.1805M. 
  86. ↑ Sur l'âge des trapps basaltiques (On the ages of flood basalt events); Vincent E. Courtillot & Paul R. Renneb; Comptes Rendus Geoscience; Vol: 335 Issue: 1, January, 2003; pp: 113–140
  87. ↑ "Stratigraphic Chart 2022". International Stratigraphic Commission. February 2022. https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf. 
  88. ↑ ASH FALL: Newsletter of the Volcanology and Igneous Petrology Division Geological Association of Canada Retrieved on 2007-09-21
  89. ↑ "Muskox Property - The Muskox Intrusion". http://www.prizemining.com/s/MuskoxProperty.asp. 
  90. ↑ The 1.27 Ga Mackenzie Large Igneous Province and Muskox layered intrusion[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  91. ↑ "Westward Migrating Ignimbrite Calderas and a Large Radiating Mafic Dike Swarm of Oligocene Age, Central Rio Grande Rift, New Mexico: Surface Expression of an Upper Mantle Diapir?". New Mexico Tech. http://geoinfo.nmt.edu/staff/chamberlin/mrds/Chamberlin_2002_GSA_poster.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-21. 
  92. ↑ Fialko, Y., and M. Simons, Evidence for on-going inflation of the Socorro magma body, New Mexico, from interferometric synthetic aperture radar imaging Geop. Res. Lett., 28, 3549–3552, 2001.
  93. ↑ "Socorro Magma Body". New Mexico Tech. http://www.ees.nmt.edu/Geop/Museum_Posters/NMseismology.html. Retrieved 2010-03-21. 
  94. ↑ "Figure: Calderas within southwestern Nevada volcanic field". Los Alamos National Laboratory. http://www.pggdb-swnvf.lanl.gov/report/img/fig-1.jpg. Retrieved 2010-03-16. 
  95. ↑ Smith, E.I.; D.L. Keenan (30 August 2005). "Yucca Mountain Could Face Greater Volcanic Threat". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 86 (35): 317. doi:10.1029/2005eo350001. Bibcode: 2005EOSTr..86..317S. http://www.state.nv.us/nucwaste/news2005/pdf/eos20050830.pdf. Retrieved 5 April 2016. 
  96. ↑ Geologic Provinces of the United States: Basin and Range Province on USGS.gov website Retrieved 9 November 2009
  97. ↑ Doell, R.R., Dalrymple, G.B., Smith, R.L., and Bailey, R.A., 1986, Paleomagnetism, potassium-argon ages, and geology of rhyolite and associated rocks of the Valles Caldera, New Mexico: Geological Society of America Memoir 116, p. 211-248.
  98. ↑ Izett, G.A., Obradovich, J.D., Naeser, C.W., and Cebula, G.T., 1981, Potassium-argon and fission-track ages of Cerro Toledo rhyolite tephra in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, in Shorter contributions to isotope research in the western United States: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1199-D, p. 37-43.
  99. ↑ Christiansen, R.L., and Blank, H.R., 1972, Volcanic stratigraphy of the Quaternary rhyolite plateau in Yellowstone National Park: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 729-B, p. 18.
  100. ↑ Salzer, Matthew W.; Malcolm K. Hughes (2007). "Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr". Quaternary Research 67 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004. Bibcode: 2007QuRes..67...57S. http://media.longnow.org/files/2/Salzer_Hughes_2007.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-18. 
  101. ↑ "VEI glossary entry". USGS. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/vei.php. Retrieved 2010-03-30. 
  102. ↑ "Volcanic Sulfur Aerosols Affect Climate and the Earth's Ozone Layer - Volcanic ash vs sulfur aerosols". U.S. Geological Survey. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/gas/s02aerosols.php. Retrieved 2010-04-21. 
  103. ↑ NASA.gov Earth Observatory - Sarychev Eruption
  104. ↑ Jones, M.T., Sparks, R.S.J., and Valdes, P.J. (2007). "The climatic impact of supervolcanis ash blankets". Climate Dynamics 29 (6): 553–564. doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0248-7. Bibcode: 2007ClDy...29..553J. 
  105. ↑ Jones, G.S., Gregory, J.M., Scott, P.A., Tett, S.F.B., Thorpe, R.B., 2005. An AOGCM model of the climate response to a volcanic super-eruption. Climate Dynamics 25, 725–738
  106. ↑ Dai, Jihong; Ellen Mosley-Thompson; Lonnie G. Thompson (1991). "Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 96 (D9): 17,361–17,366. doi:10.1029/91jd01634. Bibcode: 1991JGR....9617361D. http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1991/91JD01634.shtml. Retrieved 2010-03-26. 
  107. ↑ http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/mloapt.html Atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation (Preliminary) at Mauna Loa, Hawaii
  108. ↑ "Mt. Pinatubo's cloud shades global climate". Science News. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Mt.+Pinatubo's+cloud+shades+global+climate.-a012467057. Retrieved 2010-03-07. 
  109. ↑ Jones, P.D., Wigley, T.M.I, and Kelly, P.M. (1982), Variations in surface air temperatures: Part I. Northern Hemisphere, 1881–1980: Monthly Weather Review, v.110, p. 59-70.

Further reading

External links

[[Catego karan



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth&oldid=3419194"