Earth:Volcanic winter

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Short description: Temperature anomaly event caused by a volcanic eruption
The conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid, which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols.

A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by droplets of sulfuric acid obscuring the Sun and raising Earth's albedo (increasing the reflection of solar radiation) after a large, sulfur-rich, particularly explosive volcanic eruption. Climate effects are primarily dependent upon the amount of injection of SO2 and H2S into the stratosphere where they react with OH and H2O to form H2SO4 on a timescale of week, and the resulting H2SO4 aerosols produce the dominant radiative effect.[1] Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation for several years.[2] Moreover, the cooling trend can be further extended by atmosphere-ice-ocean feedback mechanisms. These feedbacks can continue to maintain the cool climate long after the volcanic aerosols have dissipated.[3]

Physical process

An explosive volcanic eruption releases magma materials in the form of volcanic ash and gases into the atmosphere. While most volcanic ash settles to the ground within a few weeks after the eruption, impacting only the local area for a short duration, the emitted SO2 can lead to the formation of H2SO4 aerosols in the stratosphere.[1][4] These aerosols can circle the hemisphere of the eruption source in a matter of weeks and persist with an e-folding decay time of about a year. As a result, they have a radiative impact that can last for several years.[1][4]

The subsequent dispersal of a volcanic cloud in the stratosphere and its impact on climate are strongly influenced by several factors, including the season of the eruption, the latitude of the source volcano, and the injection height.[5][6][7]

If the SO2 injection height remains confined to the troposphere, the resulting H2SO4 aerosols have a residence time of only a few days due to efficient removal through precipitation. As a result, they do not have the potential to impact the climate beyond the short-term effects on local weather.[4]

The lifetime of H2SO4 aerosols resulting from extratropical eruptions is shorter compared to those from tropical eruptions, due to a longer transport path from the tropics to removal across the mid- or high-latitude tropopause,[5][7] but extratropical eruptions strengthens the hemispheric climate impact by confining the aerosol to a single hemisphere.[7]

It is speculated that Munch's famous painting was inspired by the red volcanic aerosol cloud over Oslo produced by the 1892 Awu eruption

Injections in the winter are also much less radiatively efficient than injections during the summer for high-latitude volcanic eruptions, when the removal of stratospheric aerosols in polar regions is enhanced.[6]

The sulfate aerosol interacts strongly with solar radiation through scattering, giving rise to remarkable atmospheric optical phenomena in the stratosphere. These phenomena include solar dimming, coronae or Bishop's rings, peculiar twilight coloration, and dark total lunar eclipses.[1][8] Historical records that documented these atmospheric events are indications of volcanic winters and date back to periods preceding the Common Era.[8][9]

Surface temperature observations following historic eruptions show that there is no correlation between eruption size, as represented by the VEI or eruption volume, and the severity of the climate cooling. This is because eruption size does not correlate with the amount of SO2 emitted.[10]

Long-term positive feedback

It has been proposed that the cooling effects of volcanic eruptions can extend beyond the initial several years, lasting for decades to possibly even millennia. This prolonged impact is hypothesized to be a result of positive feedback mechanisms involving ice and ocean dynamics, even after the H2SO4 aerosols have dissipated.[1][3][11]

During the first few years following a volcanic eruption, the presence of H2SO4 aerosols can induce a significant cooling effect. This cooling can lead to a widespread lowering of snowline, enabling the rapid expansion of sea ice, ice caps and continental glacier. As a result, ocean temperatures decrease, and surface albedo increases, further reinforcing the expansion of sea ice, ice caps, and glacier. These processes create a strong positive feedback loop, allowing the cooling trend to persist over centennial-scale or even longer periods of time.[3]

It has been proposed that a cluster of closely spaced, large volcanic eruptions triggered or amplified the Little Ice Age,[12] Late Antique Little Ice Age,[13] stadials,[14] Younger Dryas,[15] Heinrich events,[16] and Dansgaard-Oeschger events[16][17] through the atmosphere-ice-ocean positive feedbacks.

Weathering effects

Timescales of various volcanic cooling mechanisms on climate

The weathering of a sufficiently large volume of rapidly erupted volcanic materials has been proposed as an important, yet controversial, factor in Earth's silicate weathering cycle, which operates on a timescale of tens of millions of years.[18][19] During this process, weathered silicate minerals react with carbon dioxide and water, resulting in the formation of magnesium carbonate and calcium carbonate. These carbonates are then removed from the atmosphere and deposited on the ocean floor. The eruption of a large volume of volcanic materials can enhance weathering processes, thereby lowering atmospheric CO2 levels and contributing to global temperature reduction.

The rapid emplacement of mafic large igneous provinces has the potential to cause a swift decline in atmospheric CO2 content, potentially driving the climate into an icehouse.[20][21][22] A notable example is the Sturtian glaciation, which is considered the most severe and widespread known glacial event in Earth's history. This glaciation is believed to have been caused by the weathering of continental flood basalts.[21][22][23][24]

Past volcanic coolings

Tree-ring-based temperature reconstructions, historical records of dust veils, and ice cores studies have confirmed that some of the coldest years during the last five millennia were directly caused by massive volcanic injections of SO2.[8][25][26]

Hemispheric temperature anomalies resulting from volcanic eruptions have primarily been reconstructed based on tree-ring data for the past two millennia.[27][28][29][30] For earlier periods in the Holocene, when there are limited annually resolved temperature reconstructions available, the identification of frost rings that coincide with large ice core sulfate spikes serves as an indicator of severe volcanic winters.[31][32] This is because frost damage implies a rare occurrence of temperatures dropping below freezing during the growing season. The quantification of volcanic coolings further back in time during the Last Glacial Period is made possible by annually resolved δ18O records, which are proxy of local temperatures.[33]

Northern Hemisphere coolings are observed following major volcanic eruptions, and temperatures are reconstructed from tree-ring data.[34][35]

This is a non-exhaustive compilation of notable and consequential climate coolings that have been definitively attributed to volcanic aerosols, although the source volcanos of the aerosols are rarely identified.

Northern Hemisphere cooling episodes definitively attributed to volcanic eruptions
Cooling episode (CE/BCE) Volcanic eruptions N.H. peak temperature anomaly Notes Ref.
1991–1993 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo −0.5 K The most researched volcanic winter, temperature anomaly measured by modern instruments. [36]
1883–1886 1883 eruption of Krakatoa −0.3 K The eruption is notable for producing a long and sustained dust veil visible to naked eyes. Temperature anomaly was measured by instruments. [37]
1809–1820 1808 mystery eruptions, 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora −1.7 K Year Without a Summer [38][39][40]
1453–1460 1452 N.H. mystery eruption, 1458 S.H. mystery eruption −1.2 K The attribution of the 1458 eruption to Kuwae Caldera remains controversial; nevertheless, it is recognized as one of the largest sulfur injections recorded during this era. Fall of Constantinople. Temperature anomaly is by tree-ring reconstruction. [41][40]
1258–1260 1257 Samalas eruption −1.3 K The single largest sulfur injection of the Common Era. Famines across large parts of the Old World were reported around 1258. Temperature anomaly is by tree-ring reconstruction. [42][40]
536–546 535 N.H. mystery eruptions, 540 tropical mystery eruption −1.4 K This interval the first phase of Late Antique Little Ice Age. Extreme weathers and societal transformations witnessed across all continents and civilizations. Temperature anomaly is by tree-ring reconstruction. [13][40]
−43–41 Okmok II −2–3 K Temperature anomaly reconstructed from Chinese speleothem and European tree-ring. Widespread famines and political instability from 43 to 42 BCE in the Mediterranean region. [43]
−1628–1626 Aniakchak II Unknown An exceptionally severe frost event was recorded in Siberian larches of the Yamal Peninsula, Bristlecone pines in western USA, Scots pine of Finland, and as one of the narrowest rings in the 7,272-year oak tree chronologies in Ireland.

The sulfur injection is one of the largest in the last 4,000 years and appears to exceed Okmok II.

Haze described in the Babylonian observations of Venus in 1627 BCE

[44][45][46][47][48]
−2306–2304 Unknown Unknown This is the most severe frost event recorded in the 5,403-year of Bristlecone pines in western USA. It caused complete disruption of the physical continuity of the wood. In the conifer trees of the Alps, this is recorded as the most pronounced cooling observed in the 10,000-year of Eastern Alpine Conifer Chronology. [49][50]

During the Last Glacial Period, volcanic coolings comparable to or exceeding the largest volcanic coolings during the Common Era (e.g. Tambora, Samalas) are inferred based on the magnitudes of δ18O anomalies within 6 years after sulfate deposition in polar ice cores. In particular, in the period 12,000–32,000 years ago, the peak δ18O cooling anomaly of the eruptions clearly exceeds the anomaly after the largest eruptions in the Common Era, implying an even greater temperature reduction than that of the eruptions in the past two millennia.[33] One Last Glacial Period eruption that have gained significant attention is the eruption of the Youngest Toba Tuff (YTT), which has sparked vigorous debates regarding its climate effects.

Youngest Toba Tuff

The eruption of YTT from Toba Caldera, ca. 74,000 years ago, is regarded as the largest known Quaternary eruption and two orders of magnitude greater than the magma volume of the largest historical eruptions (e.g. Tambora, Samalas).[51] The exceptional magnitude of this eruption has prompted sustained debate as to its global and regional impact on climate.[52][53][54]

Sulfate concentration and isotope measurements from polar ice cores, taken around the time of 74,000 years BP, have identified three atmospheric aerosol events that could potentially be attributed to YTT. The calculated stratospheric sulfur loadings for these three events range from 72 to 233 million tonnes (MT), which is 2 to 4 times greater than that of the Samalas eruption in 1257 CE (59 MT), but not orders of magnitude greater.[55][56][57] Global climate models simulate peak global mean cooling of 2 to 4.5 K for this amount of erupted sulfate aerosols, and complete temperature recovery does not occur within 10 years.[58]

Empirical evidence for cooling induced by YTT, however, is mixed. YTT coincides with the onset of Greenland Stadial 20 (GS-20), which is characterized by 1,500-year cooling and is considered the coldest stadial of the last 100,000 years.[59][60][61] This timing has led some to speculate on the relation between YTT and GS-20.[59][62][63] The stratigraphic position of YTT in relation to the GS-20 transition suggests that the stadial would have occurred without YTT, as the cooling was already underway.[59][60][61] There is the possibility that YTT amplified GS-20, making it colder than other stadials.[64][61][65] Lake Malawi sediments with subdecadal resolution show no evidence supporting a major environmental perturbation or volcanic winter within a few years after the eruption of YTT.[66][67][68][69]

Effects on life

The supervolcano caldera Lake Toba

The causes of the population bottleneck – a sharp decrease in a species' population, immediately followed by a period of great genetic divergence (differentiation) among survivors – is attributed to volcanic winters by some researchers. Such events may diminish populations to "levels low enough for evolutionary changes, which occur much faster in small populations, to produce rapid population differentiation".[70] With the Lake Toba bottleneck, many species showed massive effects of narrowing of the gene pool, and Toba may have reduced the human population to between 15,000 and 40,000, or even fewer.[70]

See also

References

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  2. ↑ Santer, Benjamin D.; Bonfils, Céline; Painter, Jeffrey F.; Zelinka, Mark D.; Mears, Carl; Solomon, Susan; Schmidt, Gavin A.; Fyfe, John C. et al. (March 2014). "Volcanic contribution to decadal changes in tropospheric temperature". Nature Geoscience 7 (3): 185–189. doi:10.1038/ngeo2098. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2014NatGe...7..185S. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Zhong, Y.; Miller, G. H.; Otto-Bliesner, B. L.; Holland, M. M.; Bailey, D. A.; Schneider, D. P.; Geirsdottir, A. (2011-12-01). "Centennial-scale climate change from decadally-paced explosive volcanism: a coupled sea ice-ocean mechanism" (in en). Climate Dynamics 37 (11): 2373–2387. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0967-z. ISSN 1432-0894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0967-z. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Cole‐Dai, Jihong (2010). "Volcanoes and climate" (in en). WIREs Climate Change 1 (6): 824–839. doi:10.1002/wcc.76. ISSN 1757-7780. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/wcc.76. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Schneider, David P.; Ammann, Caspar M.; Otto-Bliesner, Bette L.; Kaufman, Darrell S. (2009-08-01). "Climate response to large, high-latitude and low-latitude volcanic eruptions in the Community Climate System Model" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (D15). doi:10.1029/2008JD011222. ISSN 0148-0227. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2008JD011222. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Kravitz, Ben; Robock, Alan (2011-01-07). "Climate effects of high-latitude volcanic eruptions: Role of the time of year" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 116 (D1). doi:10.1029/2010JD014448. ISSN 0148-0227. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2010JD014448. 
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  31. ↑ Salzer, Matthew W.; Hughes, Malcolm K. (2007). "Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr" (in en). Quaternary Research 67 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004. ISSN 0033-5894. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0033589400004749/type/journal_article. 
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  45. ↑ Baillie, M. G. L.; Munro, M. a. R. (1988). "Irish tree rings, Santorini and volcanic dust veils" (in en). Nature 332 (6162): 344–346. doi:10.1038/332344a0. ISSN 1476-4687. https://www.nature.com/articles/332344a0. 
  46. ↑ LaMarche, Valmore C.; Hirschboeck, Katherine K. (1984). "Frost rings in trees as records of major volcanic eruptions" (in en). Nature 307 (5947): 121–126. doi:10.1038/307121a0. ISSN 1476-4687. https://www.nature.com/articles/307121a0. 
  47. ↑ Hantemirov, Rashit; Gorlanova, Liudmila; Bessonova, Varvara; Hamzin, Ildar; Kukarskih, Vladimir (2023). "A 4500-Year Tree-Ring Record of Extreme Climatic Events on the Yamal Peninsula" (in en). Forests 14 (3): 574. doi:10.3390/f14030574. ISSN 1999-4907. 
  48. ↑ Pearson, Charlotte; Sigl, Michael; Burke, Andrea; Davies, Siwan; Kurbatov, Andrei; Severi, Mirko; Cole-Dai, Jihong; Innes, Helen et al. (2022-04-29). "Geochemical ice-core constraints on the timing and climatic impact of Aniakchak II (1628 BCE) and Thera (Minoan) volcanic eruptions". PNAS Nexus 1 (2): pgac048. doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac048. ISSN 2752-6542. PMID 36713327. PMC 9802406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac048. 
  49. ↑ Salzer, Matthew W.; Bunn, Andrew G.; Graham, Nicholas E.; Hughes, Malcolm K. (2014-03-01). "Five millennia of paleotemperature from tree-rings in the Great Basin, USA" (in en). Climate Dynamics 42 (5): 1517–1526. doi:10.1007/s00382-013-1911-9. ISSN 1432-0894. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1911-9. 
  50. ↑ Nicolussi, Kurt; Pichler, Thomas; van Dijk, Evelien; Sigl, Michael (2023). "Seasonality of large volcanic events – evidence from mid-latitude tree-ring parameters". PAGES Volcanic Impacts on Climate and Society 5th Workshop. 
  51. ↑ Costa, Antonio; Smith, Victoria C.; Macedonio, Giovanni; Matthews, Naomi E. (2014). "The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption". Frontiers in Earth Science 2. doi:10.3389/feart.2014.00016/full. ISSN 2296-6463. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2014.00016. 
  52. ↑ Williams, Martin (2012). "Did the 73 ka Toba super-eruption have an enduring effect? Insights from genetics, prehistoric archaeology, pollen analysis, stable isotope geochemistry, geomorphology, ice cores, and climate models" (in en). Quaternary International 269: 87–93. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.045. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618211001911. 
  53. ↑ Lane, Christine S.; Chorn, Ben T.; Johnson, Thomas C. (2013-05-14). "Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (20): 8025–8029. doi:10.1073/pnas.1301474110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 23630269. PMC 3657767. https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1301474110. 
  54. ↑ Black, Benjamin A.; Lamarque, Jean-François; Marsh, Daniel R.; Schmidt, Anja; Bardeen, Charles G. (2021-07-20). "Global climate disruption and regional climate shelters after the Toba supereruption" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (29). doi:10.1073/pnas.2013046118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 34230096. PMC 8307270. https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2013046118. 
  55. ↑ Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15). "Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ∼71,000 years ago" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 23 (8): 837–840. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/96GL00706. 
  56. ↑ Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K. et al. (2013-03-19). "Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)" (in English). Climate of the Past 9 (2): 749–766. doi:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013. ISSN 1814-9324. https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/9/749/2013/. 
  57. ↑ Crick, Laura; Burke, Andrea; Hutchison, William; Kohno, Mika; Moore, Kathryn A.; Savarino, Joel; Doyle, Emily A.; Mahony, Sue et al. (2021-10-18). "New insights into the ∼ 74 ka Toba eruption from sulfur isotopes of polar ice cores" (in English). Climate of the Past 17 (5): 2119–2137. doi:10.5194/cp-17-2119-2021. ISSN 1814-9324. https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/17/2119/2021/. 
  58. ↑ Black, Benjamin A.; Lamarque, Jean-François; Marsh, Daniel R.; Schmidt, Anja; Bardeen, Charles G. (2021-07-20). "Global climate disruption and regional climate shelters after the Toba supereruption" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (29). doi:10.1073/pnas.2013046118. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 34230096. PMC 8307270. https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2013046118. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Zielinski, G. A.; Mayewski, P. A.; Meeker, L. D.; Whitlow, S.; Twickler, M. S.; Taylor, K. (1996-04-15). "Potential atmospheric impact of the Toba Mega-Eruption ∼71,000 years ago" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 23 (8): 837–840. doi:10.1029/96GL00706. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/96GL00706. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Svensson, A.; Bigler, M.; Blunier, T.; Clausen, H. B.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Fujita, S.; Goto-Azuma, K. et al. (2013-03-19). "Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba eruption (74 ka BP)" (in English). Climate of the Past 9 (2): 749–766. doi:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013. ISSN 1814-9324. https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/9/749/2013/. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Crick, Laura; Burke, Andrea; Hutchison, William; Kohno, Mika; Moore, Kathryn A.; Savarino, Joel; Doyle, Emily A.; Mahony, Sue et al. (2021-10-18). "New insights into the ∼ 74 ka Toba eruption from sulfur isotopes of polar ice cores" (in English). Climate of the Past 17 (5): 2119–2137. doi:10.5194/cp-17-2119-2021. ISSN 1814-9324. https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/17/2119/2021/. 
  62. ↑ Rampino, Michael R.; Ambrose, Stanley H. (2000), "Volcanic winter in the Garden of Eden: The Toba supereruption and the late Pleistocene human population crash" (in en), Volcanic Hazards and Disasters in Human Antiquity (Geological Society of America), doi:10.1130/0-8137-2345-0.71, ISBN 978-0-8137-2345-7, https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/492/chapter/3800319, retrieved 2023-06-19 
  63. ↑ Polyak, Victor J.; Asmerom, Yemane; Lachniet, Matthew S. (2017-09-01). "Rapid speleothem δ13C change in southwestern North America coincident with Greenland stadial 20 and the Toba (Indonesia) supereruption" (in en). Geology 45 (9): 843–846. doi:10.1130/G39149.1. ISSN 0091-7613. http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/45/9/843/353465/Rapid-speleothem-δ13C-change-in-southwestern-North. 
  64. ↑ Baldini, James U. L.; Brown, Richard J.; Mawdsley, Natasha (2018-07-04). "Evaluating the link between the sulfur-rich Laacher See volcanic eruption and the Younger Dryas climate anomaly" (in English). Climate of the Past 14 (7): 969–990. doi:10.5194/cp-14-969-2018. ISSN 1814-9324. https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/14/969/2018/. 
  65. ↑ Menking, James A.; Shackleton, Sarah A.; Bauska, Thomas K.; Buffen, Aron M.; Brook, Edward J.; Barker, Stephen; Severinghaus, Jeffrey P.; Dyonisius, Michael N. et al. (2022-09-16). "Multiple carbon cycle mechanisms associated with the glaciation of Marine Isotope Stage 4" (in en). Nature Communications 13 (1): 5443. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-33166-3. ISSN 2041-1723. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-33166-3. 
  66. ↑ Lane, Christine S.; Chorn, Ben T.; Johnson, Thomas C. (2013-05-14). "Ash from the Toba supereruption in Lake Malawi shows no volcanic winter in East Africa at 75 ka" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (20): 8025–8029. doi:10.1073/pnas.1301474110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 23630269. PMC PMC3657767. https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1301474110. 
  67. ↑ Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S.; Yost, Chad L. (2015). "High-resolution paleoecological records from Lake Malawi show no significant cooling associated with the Mount Toba supereruption at ca. 75 ka" (in en). Geology 43 (9): 823–826. doi:10.1130/G36917.1. ISSN 0091-7613. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology/article/43/9/823-826/131970. 
  68. ↑ Yost, Chad L.; Jackson, Lily J.; Stone, Jeffery R.; Cohen, Andrew S. (2018). "Subdecadal phytolith and charcoal records from Lake Malawi, East Africa imply minimal effects on human evolution from the ∼74 ka Toba supereruption" (in en). Journal of Human Evolution 116: 75–94. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.11.005. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0047248417302750. 
  69. ↑ Cohen, Andrew S.; Campisano, Christopher J.; Arrowsmith, J. Ramón; Asrat, Asfawossen; Beck, Catherine C.; Behrensmeyer, Anna K.; Deino, Alan L.; Feibel, Craig S. et al. (2022-05-31). "Reconstructing the Environmental Context of Human Origins in Eastern Africa Through Scientific Drilling" (in en). Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 50 (1): 451–476. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-081947. ISSN 0084-6597. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-081947. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Burroughs, William James (2005). Climate Change in Prehistory: The End of the Reign of Chaos, Cambridge University Press, p. 139 ISBN:978-0521824095

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