Social:Nordic race

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The Nordic race was one of the putative sub-races into which some late-19th to mid-20th-century anthropologists divided the Caucasian race. People of the Nordic type were to be mostly found in Scandinavia, Northwestern Europe,[1][2][3][4] and countries surrounding the Baltic Sea, such as Germans and Finnic peoples.[5][6] The psychological traits of Nordics were described as truthful, equitable, competitive, naïve, reserved, and individualistic.[7] Other supposed sub-races were the Alpine race, Dinaric race, East Baltic race, and the Mediterranean race.

Nordicism is an ideology of racial separatism which views Nordics as an endangered and superior racial group, most notably outlined in Madison Grant's book The Passing of the Great Race, Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, and Houston Stewart Chamberlain's The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century. This ideology was popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Northwestern, Central, and Northern European countries as well as in North America and Australia. The idea of the Nordic phenotype being superior to others was originally embraced as "Teutonicism" in Germany, "Anglo-Saxonism" in England and the United States, and "Gallicism" in France .[8][9][10] The notion of the superiority of the "Nordic race" and the Northwestern European nations associated with this supposed race influenced the United States' Immigration Act of 1924 (which effectively banned or severely limited the immigration of Italians, Jews, and other Southern and Eastern Europeans) and the later Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952[11] and was present in other countries outside of Northwestern Europe such as Australia , Canada , and South Africa .[12][13] By the 1930s, the Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior of the "Aryan race" and constituted a master race (Herrenvolk).[14]

Background

Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1932) shows Germany war hero Karl von Müller as an example of the Nordic type

In the mid-19th century, scientific racism developed the theory of Aryanism, holding that Europeans ("Aryans") were an innately superior branch of humanity [citation needed], responsible for most of its greatest achievements. Aryanism was derived from the idea that the original speakers of the Indo-European languages constituted a distinctive race or subrace of the larger Caucasian race[citation needed].

Its principal proponent was Arthur de Gobineau in his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855)[citation needed]. Though Gobineau did not equate Nordic peoples with Aryans, he argued that Germanic people were the best modern representatives of the Aryan race. Adapting the comments of Tacitus and other Roman writers, he argued that "pure" Northerners regenerated Europe after the Roman Empire declined due to racial "dilution" of its leadership[citation needed].

By the 1880s a number of linguists and anthropologists argued that the Aryans themselves had originated somewhere in northern Europe[citation needed]. Theodor Poesche proposed that the Aryans originated in the vast Rokitno, or Pinsk Marshes, then in the Russian Empire, now covering much of the southern part of Belarus and the north-west of the Ukraine , but it was Karl Penka who popularised the idea that the Aryans had emerged in Scandinavia and could be identified by the distinctive Nordic characteristics of blond hair and blue eyes[citation needed].

The biologist Thomas Henry Huxley agreed with him, coining the term Xanthochroi to refer to fair-skinned Europeans, as opposed to darker Mediterranean peoples, whom Huxley called Melanochroi.[15][16] It was Huxley who also concluded that the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race), who he described as "dark whites", are of a mixture of the Xanthochroi and Australioids.[17]

This distinction was repeated by Charles Morris in his book The Aryan Race (1888), which argued that the original Aryans could be identified by their blond hair and other Nordic features, such as dolichocephaly (long skull). The argument was given extra impetus by the French anthropologist Vacher de Lapouge in his book L’Aryen, in which he argued that the "dolichocephalic-blond" peoples were natural leaders, destined to rule over more brachycephalic (short-skulled) peoples.[18]

The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche also referred in his writings to "blond beasts": amoral adventurers who were supposed to be the progenitors of creative cultures.[19] In On the Genealogy of Morals (1887), he wrote, "In Latin malus ... could indicate the vulgar man as the dark one, especially as the black-haired one, as the pre-Aryan dweller of the Italian soil which distinguished itself most clearly through his colour from the blonds who became their masters, namely the Aryan conquering race."[20]

Defining characteristics

Henry Keane's Man, Past and Present (1899) shows a Dane as an example of the Nordic type

It was the Russian-born French anthropologist Joseph Deniker that initially proposed "nordique" (meaning simply "northern") as an "ethnic group" (a term that he coined). He defined nordique by a set of physical characteristics: The concurrence of somewhat wavy hair, light eyes, reddish skin, tall stature and a dolichocephalic skull.[21] Of six 'Caucasian' groups Deniker accommodated four into secondary ethnic groups, all of which he considered intermediate to the Nordic: Northwestern, Sub-Nordic, Vistula and Sub-Adriatic, respectively.[22][23]

American economist William Z. Ripley purported to define a "Teutonic race" in his book The Races of Europe (1899).[24] He divided Europeans into three main subcategories: Teutonic (teutonisch), Alpine and Mediterranean. According to Ripley the "Teutonic race" resided in Scandinavia, Northern France, northern Germany, Baltic states and East Prussia, northern Poland, northern Russia, Britain, Ireland, parts of Central and Eastern Europe and was typified by light hair, light skin, blue eyes, tall stature, a narrow nose, and slender body type. Georges Vacher de Lapouge had called this race "Homo Europaeus".

Madison Grant, in his book The Passing of the Great Race, took up Ripley's classification. He described a "Nordic" or "Baltic" type:

"long skulled, very tall, fair skinned, with blond, brown or red hair and light coloured eyes. The Nordics inhabit the countries around the North and Baltic Seas and include not only the great Scandinavian and Teutonic groups, but also other early peoples who first appear in southern Europe and in Asia as representatives of Aryan language and culture."[25]

According to Grant, the "Alpine race", shorter in stature, darker in colouring, with a rounder head, predominated in Central and Eastern Europe through to Turkey and the Eurasian steppes of Central Asia and Southern Russia. The "Mediterranean race", with dark hair and eyes, aquiline nose, swarthy complexion, moderate-to-short stature, and moderate or long skull was said to be prevalent in Southern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.[26][27]

20th century

By 1902 the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna identified the original Aryans (Proto-Indo-Europeans) with the north German Corded Ware culture, an argument that gained in currency over the following two decades. He placed the Indo-European Urheimat in Schleswig-Holstein, arguing that they had expanded across Europe from there.[28] By the early 20th century this theory was well established, though far from universally accepted[citation needed]. Sociologists were soon using the concept of a "blond race" to model the migrations of the supposedly more entrepreneurial and innovative components of European populations. As late as 1939 Carleton Coon wrote that "The Poles who came to the United States during the 19th century, and the early decades of the 20th, did not represent a cross-section of the Polish population, but a taller, blonder, longer-headed group than the Poles as a whole."[29] The "high brow"/"low brow" distinction, derived from such theories, also became enshrined in language.

It was the already mentioned work of sociologist/economist William Z. Ripley which popularized the idea of three biological European races. Ripley borrowed Deniker's terminology of Nordic (he had previously used the term "Teuton"); his division of the European races relied on a variety of anthropometric measurements, but focused especially on their cephalic index and stature.

Compared to Deniker, Ripley advocated a simplified racial view and proposed a single Teutonic race linked to geographic areas where Nordic-like characteristics predominate, and contrasted these areas to the boundaries of two other types, Alpine and Mediterranean, thus reducing the 'caucasoid branch of humanity' to three distinct groups.[30]

By the early 20th century, Ripley's tripartite Nordic/Alpine/Mediterranean model was well established. Most 19th century race-theorists like Arthur de Gobineau, Otto Ammon, Georges Vacher de Lapouge and Houston Stewart Chamberlain preferred to speak of "Aryans," "Teutons," and "Indo-Europeans" instead of "Nordic Race". The British German racialist Houston Stewart Chamberlain considered the Nordic race to be made up of Celtic and Germanic peoples, as well as some Slavs. Chamberlain called those people Celt-Germanic peoples, and his ideas would influence Adolf Hitler's Nazi ideology.

Only in the 1920s did a strong partiality for "Nordic" begin to reveal itself, and for a while the term was used almost interchangeably with Aryan.[31] Later, however, Nordic would not be co-terminous with Aryan, Indo-European or Germanic.[32] For example, the later Nazi minister for Food, Richard Walther Darré, who had developed a concept of the German peasantry as Nordic race, used the term 'Aryan' to refer to the tribes of the Iranian plains.[32]

The notion of a distinct northern European race was also rejected by several anthropologists on craniometric grounds. Rudolf Virchow attacked the claim following a study of craniometry, which gave surprising results according to contemporary scientific racist theories on the "Aryan race." During the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe, Virchow denounced the "Nordic mysticism," while Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated that the people of Europe, be they German, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of various races," furthermore declaring that the "results of craniology" led to "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race".[33]

Gunther 1922

Hans F. K. Günther's map, from 1922, with the Nordic race shown in bright red; light brown indicates the Dinaric race; light blue indicates the Mediterranean race; yellow, the Mongolian race.

In Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (Racial Science of the German People), published 1922, Hans F. K. Günther identified five principal European races instead of three, adding the East Baltic race (related to the Alpine race) and Dinaric race (related to the Nordic race) to Ripley's categories. This work was influential in Ewald Banse's publication of Die Rassenkarte von Europa in 1925 which combined research by Joseph Deniker, William Z. Ripley, Madison Grant, Otto Hauser, Hans F. K. Günther, Eugen Fischer and Gustav Kraitschek.

In The Racial Elements of European History Gunther further identified a race he named Hither Asiatic in Southern Spain and Morocco which he believed was carried into Europe through the Moorish invasions. He identified an Inner Asiatic race residing in Northern Scandinavia and Northern Russia. He also identified the Oriental race residing and originating from Arabia, as well as the Near Asiatic race originating from Persia.

Gunther concluded that Germany was one of the most racially diverse nations of Europe and that all racial groups, in varying distributions, could be found in any European nation. Gunther argued Jews are a nationality and not a race, comprising several racial groups including Nordics, but predominantly Hither Asiatic and Oriental.[34]

Coon (1939)

Carleton Coon in his book of 1939 The Races of Europe subdivided the Nordic race into three main types, "Corded", "Danubian" and "Keltic", besides a "Neo-Danubian" type[35] and a variety of Nordic types altered by Upper Palaeolithic or Alpine admixture.[36][37][38] "Exotic Nordics" are morphologically Nordic types that occur in places distant from the northwestern European center of Nordic concentration.[39]

Coon takes the Nordics to be a partially depigmented branch of the greater Mediterranean racial stock. He suggests that the Nordic type emerged as a result of a mixture of "the Danubian Mediterranean strain with the later Corded element". Hence his two main Nordic types show Corded and Danubian predominance, respectively .[40] The third "Keltic" or "Hallstatt" type Coon takes to have emerged in the European Iron Age, in Central Europe, where it was subsequently mostly replaced, but "found a refuge in Sweden and in the eastern valleys of southern Norway."[41]

Coon further recognizes the following terminology of earlier authors:[42]

  • Fenno-Nordic, "a hypothetical eastern branch of the Nordic race"
  • Noric, "a blond, Dinaricized Nordic"
  • Osterdal type, "the classic Iron Age Nordic, as found today in the eastern valleys of Norway"
  • Sub-Nordic, "a racial group which would fall partly in the East Baltic and partly in the Neo-Danubian categories"
  • Trønderlagen type or Trønder type, "a variety of Nordic with an excessive Corded element and Upper Palaeolithic mixture"
  • Anglo-Saxon type, "a sub-type of Nordic which contains unreduced Upper Palaeolithic mixture"

Depigmentation theory

Coon's (1939) theory that the Nordic race was a depigmentated variation of the greater Mediterranean racial stock was also supported by his mentor Earnest Albert Hooton who in the same year published Twilight of Man, which notes: "The Nordic race is certainly a depigmented offshoot from the basic long-headed Mediterranean stock. It deserves separate racial classification only because its blond hair (ash or golden), its pure blue or grey eyes".[43][44] A 1990s study by Ulrich Mueller found that depigmentation of Nordic peoples around the Baltic Sea likely occurred due to vitamin D deficiency amongst peoples living there 10,000-30,000 years ago who had a lack of access to vitamin D foods such as dairy products at the time. Depigmentation allowed greater amount of ultraviolet B light to be absorbed through the skin to synthesize to produce vitamin D.[45]

Nordicism

By the early twentieth century the concept of a "masterly" Nordic race had become familiar enough that the United Kingdom psychologist William McDougall, writing in 1920, stated:

Among all the disputes and uncertainties of the ethnographers about the races of Europe, one fact stands out clearly—namely, that we can distinguish a race of northerly distribution and origin, characterised physically by fair colour of hair and skin and eyes, by tall stature and dolichocephaly (i.e. long shape of head), and mentally by great independence of character, individual initiative and tenacity of will. Many names have been used to denote this type, ... . It is also called the Nordic type.[46]

Nordicists claimed that Nordics had formed upper tiers of ancient civilisations, even in the Mediterranean civilisations of antiquity, which had declined once this dominant race had been assimilated. Thus they argued that ancient evidence suggested that leading Romans like Nero, Sulla and Cato were blond or red-haired.[47][48][49][50]

Some Nordicists admitted the Mediterranean race was superior to the Nordic in terms of artistic ability[citation needed]. However, the Nordic race was regarded as superior on the basis that, although Mediterranean peoples were culturally sophisticated, it was the Nordics who were alleged to be the innovators and conquerors, having an adventurous spirit that no other race could match[citation needed].

The Alpine race was usually regarded as inferior to both the Nordic and Mediterranean races, making up the traditional peasant class of Europe while Nordics occupied the aristocracy and led the world in technology, and Mediterraneans were regarded as more imaginative.[51]

Opponents of Nordicism rejected these arguments. The anti-Nordicist writer Giuseppe Sergi argued in his influential book The Mediterranean Race (1901) that there was no evidence that the upper tiers of ancient societies were Nordic, insisting that historical and anthropological evidence contradicted such claims. Sergi argued that Mediterraneans constituted "the greatest race in the world", with a creative edge absent in the Nordic race. According to him, they were the creators of all the major ancient civilisations, from Mesopotamia to Rome[citation needed].

This argument was later repeated by C. G. Seligman, who wrote that "it must, I think, be recognised that the Mediterranean race has actually more achievement to its credit than any other".[52] Even Carleton Coon insisted that among Greeks "the Nordic element is weak, as it probably has been since the days of Homer ... It is my personal reaction to the living Greeks that their continuity with their ancestors of the ancient world is remarkable, rather than the opposite."[53]

In the United States

President Coolidge signs the 1924 immigration act, restricting non-Northern European immigration. John J. Pershing is on the President's right.

In the United States, the primary spokesman for Nordicism was the eugenicist Madison Grant. His 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History about Nordicism was highly influential among racial thinking and government policy making.[54]

Grant used the theory as justification for immigration policies of the 1920s, arguing that the immigrants from certain areas of Europe, such as Italians and other Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans, represented a lesser type of European and their numbers in the United States should not be increased. Grant and others urged this as well as the complete restriction of non-Europeans, such as the Chinese and Japanese.

Grant argued the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and admixture was "race suicide" and unless eugenic policies were enacted, the Nordic race would be supplanted by inferior races. Future president Calvin Coolidge agreed, stating "Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides."[55]

The Immigration Act of 1924 was signed into law by President Coolidge. This was designed to reduce the number of immigrants from Southern Europe, Southeast Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia, exclude Asian immigrants altogether, and favor immigration from the British Isles, Germany and Scandinavia.

The spread of these ideas also affected popular culture. F. Scott Fitzgerald invokes Grant's ideas through a character in part of The Great Gatsby, and Hilaire Belloc jokingly rhapsodied the "Nordic man" in a poem and essay in which he satirised the stereotypes of Nordics, Alpines and Mediterraneans.[56]

Nordicist thought in Germany

Hans F. K. Günther (1891–1968), prominent Germany racial theorist who helped to popularise Nordicism in his country.

In Germany the influence of Nordicism remained powerful. There it was known under the term "Nordischer Gedanke" (Nordic thought).

This phrase was coined by the German eugenicists Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer and Fritz Lenz. It appeared in their 1921 work Human Heredity, which insisted on the innate superiority of the Nordic race.[57]

Adapting the arguments of Arthur Schopenhauer and others to Darwinian theory, they argued that the qualities of initiative and will-power identified by earlier writers had arisen from natural selection, because of the tough landscape in which Nordic peoples evolved. This had ensured that weaker individuals had not survived.

This argument was derived from earlier eugenicist and Social Darwinist ideas. According to the authors, the Nordic race arose in the ice age, from:

quite a small group which, under stress of rapidly changing conditions (climate, beasts of the chase) was exposed to exceptionally rigorous selection and was persistently inbred, thus acquiring the peculiar characteristics which persist today as the exclusive heritage of the Nordic race ... Philological, archaeological and anthropological researches combine to indicate that the primal home of the Indo-Germanic [i.e. Aryan] languages must have been in Northern Europe.[58]

They went on to argue that "the original Indo-Germanic civilisation" was carried by Nordic migrants down to India, and that the physiognomy of upper caste Indians "disclose a Nordic origin".[59][60][61]

By this time, Germany was well-accustomed to theories of race and racial superiority due to the long presence of the Völkisch movement, the philosophy that Germans constituted a unique people, or volk, linked by common blood. While Volkism was popular mainly among Germany's lower classes and was more a romanticised version of ethnic nationalism, Nordicism attracted German anthropologists and eugenicists.

Hans F. K. Günther, one of Fischer's students, first defined "Nordic thought" in his programmatic book Der Nordische Gedanke unter den Deutschen.[62] He became the most influential German in this field. His Short Ethnology of the German People (1929) was very widely circulated.

In his Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (Race-Lore of the German Volk), published 1922, Günther identified five principal European races instead of three, adding the East Baltic race and Dinaric race to Ripley's categories.[31] He used the term Ostic instead of Alpine.[31] He focused on their supposedly distinct mental attributes.

Günther criticised the Völkish idea, stating that the Germans were not racially unified, but were actually one of the most racially diverse peoples in Europe. Despite this, many Völkists who merged Völkism and Nordicism embraced Günther's ideas, most notably the Nazis.[63][64]

Nazi Nordicism

Adolf Hitler was a proponent of the concept of the Aryan race and Aryanism. He viewed the Nordic racial subtype as being at the top of the racial hierarchy within the Aryan race.

Adolf Hitler read Human Heredity shortly before he wrote Mein Kampf, and called it scientific proof of the racial basis of civilisation.[65] Its arguments were also repeated by the Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg, in his book The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930).[citation needed]

Nazi racial theories held the Atlanteans to be a race of Nordic supermen, and Alfred Rosenberg wrote of a "Nordic-Atlantean" master race whose civilisation was lost through inward corruption and betrayal.[66] According to Rosenberg, the Nordic race had evolved in a now-lost landmass off the coast of Europe, perhaps mythical Atlantis, migrated through northern Europe and expanded further south to Iran and India where it founded the Aryan cultures of Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. Like Grant and others, he argued that the entrepreneurial energy of the Nordics had "degenerated" when they mixed with "inferior" peoples.

With the rise of Hitler, Nordic theory became the norm within German culture. In some cases the "Nordic" concept became an almost abstract ideal rather than a mere racial category. For example, Hermann Gauch wrote in 1933 (in a book which was banned in the Third Reich)[67] that the fact that "birds can be taught to talk better than other animals is explained by the fact that their mouths are Nordic in structure." He further claimed that in humans, "the shape of the Nordic gum allows a superior movement of the tongue, which is the reason why Nordic talking and singing are richer."[68]

Such views were extreme, but more mainstream Nordic theory was institutionalised. Hans F. K. Günther, who joined the Nazi Party in 1932, was praised as a pioneer in racial thinking, a shining light of Nordic theory. Most official Nazi comments on the Nordic Race were based on Günther's works, and Alfred Rosenberg presented Günther with a medal for his work in anthropology.

Eugen Fischer and Fritz Lenz were also appointed to senior positions overseeing the policy of Racial Hygiene. Madison Grant's book was the first non-German book to be translated and published by the Nazi Reich press, and Grant proudly displayed to his friends a letter from Hitler claiming that the book was "his Bible."[69][70]

The Nazi state used such ideas about the differences between European races as part of their various discriminatory and coercive policies which culminated in the Holocaust. Ironically, in Grant's first edition of his popular book, he classified the Germans as being primarily Nordic, but in his second edition, published after the USA had entered World War I, he had re-classified the now enemy power as being dominated by "inferior" Alpines.

Günther's work agreed with Grant's, and the German anthropologist frequently stated that the Germans are not a fully Nordic people.[citation needed]. Hitler himself was later to downplay the importance of Nordicism in public for this very reason.[citation needed]. The standard tripartite model placed most of the population of Hitler's Germany in the Alpine category, especially after the Anschluss.

J. Kaup led a movement opposed to Günther. Kaup took the view that a German nation, all of whose citizens belonged to a "German race" in a populationist sense, offered a more convenient sociotechnical tool than Günther's concept of an ideal Nordic type to which only a very few Germans could belong.

Nazi legislation identifying the ethnic and "racial" affinities of the Jews reflects the populationist concept of race. Discrimination was not restricted to Jews who belonged to the "Oriental-Armenoid" race, but was directed against all members of the Jewish ethnic population.[71]

The German Jewish journalist Kurt Caro (1905–1979) who emigrated to Paris in 1933 and served in the British Army from 1943,[72] published a book under the pseudonym Manuel Humbert claiming to unmask Hitler's "Mein Kampf" in which he stated the following racial composition of the Jewish population of Central Europe: 23,8% Lapponid race, 21,5% Nordic race, 20,3% Armenoid race, 18,4% Mediterranean race, 16,0% Oriental race.[73]

By 1939 Hitler had abandoned Nordicist rhetoric in favour of the idea that the German people as a whole were united by distinct "spiritual" qualities. Nevertheless, Nazi eugenics policies continued to favour Nordics over Alpines and other racial groups, particularly during the war when decisions were being made about the incorporation of conquered peoples into the Reich.[74][75][76]

In 1942 Hitler stated in private,

I shall have no peace of mind until I have planted a seed of Nordic blood wherever the population stand in need of regeneration. If at the time of the migrations, while the great racial currents were exercising their influence, our people received so varied a share of attributes, these latter blossomed to their full value only because of the presence of the Nordic racial nucleus.[77]

In his "table talk", Hitler described how the presence of German and English soldiers in the combat areas he served in during World War I had, in his view, improved the quality of the young people he saw there in 1940, in a "Nordicizing process, the results of which are today [according to Hitler] incontestable." He also said he observed the same process at work in the area of his mountain home near Berchtesgaden, which he described as having, when he first came there, a mongrel population, the quality of which was much improved by the presence of his SS Bodyguard Regiment, which was responsible for "the numbers of strong and healthy children running around the area." Hitler went on to say that "[This] shows that elite troops should really be sent wherever the composition of the people is poor, in order to improve it."[78] Indeed, Hitler and Himmler planned to use the SS – a racial elite chosen on the basis of "pure" Nordic qualities – as the basis for the racial "regeneration" of Europe following the final victory of Nazism. .[31][79][80]

Addressing officers of the SS-Leibstandarte "Adolf Hitler" Himmler stated:

The ultimate aim for those 11 years during which I have been the Reichsfuehrer SS has been invariably the same: to create an order of good blood which is able to serve Germany; which unfailingly and without sparing itself can be made use of because the greatest losses can do no harm to the vitality of this order, the vitality of these men, because they will always be replaced; to create an order which will spread the idea of Nordic blood so far that we will attract all Nordic blood in the world, take away the blood from our adversaries, absorb it so that never again, looking at it from the viewpoint of grand policy, Nordic blood, in great quantities and to an extent worth mentioning, will fight against us.[81]

Nordicist thought in Italy

In Italy, the influence of Nordicism had a divisive effect in which the influence resulted in Northern Italians who regarded themselves to have Nordic racial heritage considered themselves a civilised people while negatively regarding Southern Italians as non-Nordic and therefore biologically inferior.[82] Nordicism was controversial in Italy because of common Nordicist perceptions of Mediterranean people, and especially southern Italians, being racially degenerate. The distinction between a superior northern Italy and a degenerate and an inferior southern Italy was promoted by the Neapolitan Carlo Formichi, the Vice-President of the Italian Academy, who in 1921 said that Italy needed "a great revolution ..., a return to the genius of the noble Aryan race, which is after all our race, but that has been overcome by the Semitic civilisation and mentality".[83] At least some of the stereotypes about Southern Italians were created by Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Jewish criminologist and anthropologist of Sephardic descent.[84][85][86][87][88] For his controversial theories, Lombroso was expelled from the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology in 1882. The Lombrosian doctrine is currently considered pseudoscientific.[89]

Fascist Nordicism

Benito Mussolini. Mussolini was initially a strong proponent of Mediterraneanism; however with the rise in influence of pro-Nordicist Nazism, Mussolini promoted Aryanism and recognised Italians as having Nordic-Mediterranean heritage.

Italian Fascism's stance towards Nordicism changed from being initially hostile to being favourable.

Italian Fascism strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan race that idealised "pure" Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as fair skin, blond hair and light eyes.[90] The antipathy by Mussolini and other Italian Fascists to Nordicism was over the existence of what they viewed as the Mediterranean inferiority complex that they claimed had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation of such theories by German and British Nordicists who viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus in their view inferior.[90] However traditional Nordicist claims of Mediterraneans being degenerate due to having a darker colour of skin than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology through the depigmentation theory that claimed that lighter skinned peoples had been dipigmented from a darker skin. This theory has since become a widely accepted view in anthropology.[91] Anthropologist Carleton S. Coon in his work The races of Europe (1939) subscribed to depigmentation theory that claimed that Nordic race's light-coloured skin was the result of depigmentation from their ancestors of the Mediterranean race.[44] Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex, initially rejecting Nordicism.[90]

In the early 1930s, with the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany with Hitler's emphasis on a Nordicist conception of the Aryan race, strong tensions arose between the Fascists and the Nazis over racial issues. In 1934, in the aftermath of Austrian Nazis killing Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, an ally of Italy, Mussolini became enraged and responded by angrily denouncing Nazism. Mussolini rebuked Nazism's Nordicism, claiming that the Nazis' emphasizing of a common Nordic "Germanic race" was absurd, saying "a Germanic race does not exist. ... We repeat. Does not exist. Scientists say so. Hitler says so."[92] That Germans were not purely Nordic was indeed acknowledged by Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther in his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) ("Racial Science of the German People"), where Günther recognized Germans as being composed of five Aryan subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine and East Baltic while asserting that the Nordics were the highest in a racial hierarchy of the five subtypes.[93]

By 1936, the tensions between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany reduced and relations became more amicable. In 1936, Mussolini decided to launch a racial programme in Italy, and was interested in the racial studies being conducted by Giulio Cogni.[94] Cogni was a Nordicist but did not equate Nordic identity with Germanic identity as was commonly done by German Nordicists.[95] Cogni had travelled to Germany where he had become impressed by Nazi racial theory and sought to create his own version of racial theory.[96] On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent Mussolini a copy of his newly published book Il Razzismo (1936).[94] Cogni declared the racial affinity of the Mediterranean and Nordic racial subtypes of the Aryan race and claimed that the intermixing of Nordic Aryans and Mediterranean Aryans in Italy produced a superior synthesis of Aryan Italians.[95] Cogni addressed the issue of racial differences between northern and southern Italians, declaring southern Italians were mixed between Aryan and non-Aryan races, that he claimed was most likely due to infiltration by Asiatic peoples in Roman times and later Arab invasions.[94] As such, Cogni viewed Southern Italian Mediterraneans as being polluted with orientalizing tendencies.[94] He would later change his idea and claim that Nordics and Southern Italians were closely related groups both racially and spiritually. His opinion was that they were generally responsible for what is the best in European civilization.[94] Initially Mussolini was not impressed with Cogni's work, however Cogni's ideas entered into the official Fascist racial policy several years later.[94]

In 1938 Mussolini was concerned that if Italian Fascism did not recognise Nordic heritage within Italians, that the Mediterranean inferiority complex would return to Italian society.[90] Therefore, in summer 1938, the Fascist government officially recognised Italians as having Nordic heritage and being of Nordic-Mediterranean descent and in a meeting with PNF members, and in June 1938 in a meeting with PNF members, Mussolini identified himself as Nordic and declared that previous policy of focus on Mediterraneanism was to be replaced by a focus on Aryanism.[90] Mussolini in July 1938 declared that Italians had strong Nordic heritage particularly through the heritage of the Germanic tribe of the Lombards who conquered Italy after the collapse of the Roman Empire and claimed that the intermixing of Mediterranean Romans with the Nordic Lombards was the last significant racial mixing that occurred in Italy and that none had occurred since.[97]

Post-Nazi re-evaluation and decline of Nordicism

Even before the rise of Nazism, Grant's concept of "race" lost favour in the USA in the polarising political climate after World War I, including the Great Migration and the Great Depression. By the 1930s, criticism of the Nordicist model was growing in Britain and America. The British historian Arnold J. Toynbee in A Study of History (1934) argued that the most dynamic civilisations have arisen from racially mixed cultures. In southern Europe the theory understandably had less influence.

This required the abandonment of Grant's gradations of "white" in favour of the "One-drop theory"—which was embraced by white supremacists and black leaders alike. Among the latter were Marcus Garvey, and, in part, W. E. B. Du Bois, at least in his later thought.[98][failed verification]

With the rise of Nazism many critics pointed to the flaws in the theory, repeating the arguments made by Sergi and others that the evidence of ancient Nordic achievement is thin when set against the civilizations of the Mediterranean and elsewhere. The equation of Nordic and Aryan identity was also widely criticized.[99]

In 1936 M. W. Fodor, writing in The Nation, claimed that racialized Germanic nationalism arose from an inferiority complex:

No race has suffered so much from an inferiority complex as has the Germany . National Socialism was a kind of Coué method of converting the inferiority complex, at least temporarily, into a feeling of superiority.[100]

Some Lombard nationalists took it up in Italy, but even after the establishment of Benito Mussolini's fascist government racial theories were not prominent.[101] Mussolini stated, "Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist."[102]

After World War II, the categorisation of peoples into "superior" and "inferior" groups fell even further out of political and scientific favour, eventually leading to the characterisation of such theories as scientific racism. The tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's book The Origin of Races (1962).

Already race academics such as A. James Gregor were heavily criticising Nordicism. In 1961 Gregor called it a "philosophy of despair", on the grounds that its obsession with purity doomed it to ultimate pessimism and isolationism.[103]

As late as 1977 the Swedish author Bertil Lundman wrote a book The Races and Peoples of Europe mentioning a "Nordid Race". The development of the Kurgan theory of Indo-European origins challenged the Nordicist equation of Aryan and Nordic identity, since it placed the earliest Indo-European speakers around central Asia and/or far-eastern Europe (although according to the Kurgan hypothesis some Proto-Indo-Europeans did eventually migrate into Central and Northern Europe and become the ancestors of the Nordic peoples.)

The original German term used by Ripley, "Theodiscus", which is translated into English as Teutonic, has fallen out of favour amongst German-speaking scholars, and is restricted to a somewhat ironical usage similar to the archaic teutsch, if used at all. While the term is still present in English, which has retained it in some contexts as a translation of the traditional Latin Teutonicus (most notably the aforementioned Teutonic Order), it should not be translated into German as "Teutonisch" except when referring to the historical Teutones.

Early criticism: depigmentation theory

Nordicism was subject to substantial criticism. Carleton Steven Coon in his work The Races of Europe (1939) subscribed to depigmentation theory that claimed that Nordic race's light-coloured skin was the result of depigmentation from their ancestors of the Mediterranean race.[44] The depigmentation theory received notable support from later anthropologists, thus in 1947 Melville Jacobs noted: "To many physical anthropologists Nordic means a group with an especially high percentage of blondness, which represent a depigmentated Mediterranean".[104] In her work Races of Man (1963, 2nd Ed. 1965) Sonia Mary Cole went further to argue that the Nordic race belongs to the "brunette Mediterranean" Caucasoid division but that it differs only in its higher percentage of blonde hair and light eyes. The Harvard anthropologist Claude Alvin Villee, Jr. also was a notable proponent of this theory, writing: "The Nordic division, a partially depigmised branch of the Mediterranean group."[105] Collier's Encyclopedia as late as 1984 contains an entry for this theory, citing anthropological support.[106] Early 21st century genetic studies have provided new insights into the origins of Irish people as well as their neighbours from other parts of the British Isles. Correspondingly, researchers in the field have suggested that migrations from prehistoric Iberia can be viewed as the primary source for their genetic material, having demonstrated marked similarities with modern representatives of the aforementioned time period in that of the Basque people. However, the majority of Irish males fall under the R1b sub-clade L-21, which is quite rare for Basques.[107][108]

Lundman (1977)

In his work The Races and Peoples of Europe (1977) the Swedish anthropologist Bertil Lundman introduced the term "Nordid" to describe the Nordic race, described as follows:

"The Nordid race is light-eyed, mostly rather light-haired, low-skulled and long-skulled (dolichocephalic), tall and slender, with more or less narrow face and narrow nose, and low frequency of blood type gene q. The Nordid race has several subraces. The most divergent is the Faelish subrace in western Germany and also in the interior of southwestern Norway. The Faelish subrace is broader of face and form. So is the North-Atlantid subrace (the North-Occidental race of Deniker), which is like the primary type, but has much darker hair. Above all in the oceanic parts of Great Britain the North-Atlantic subrace is also very high in blood type gene r and low in blood type gene p. The major type with distribution particularly in Scandinavia is here termed the Scandid or Scando-Nordid subrace."

Forensic anthropology

Some forensic scientists, pathologists and anthropologists up to the 1990s continued to use the tripartite division of Caucasoids: Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean, based on their cranial anthropometry. The anthropologist Wilton M. Krogman for example identified Nordic racial crania in his work "The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine" (1986) as being "dolichochranic".[109] In his work "Forensic Pathology", published in 1991, Bernard Knight, a Professor of Forensic Pathology, also uses the tripartite model and identifies the Nordic race based on its dolichocephalic skull shape.[110] Forensic anthropologists of the 21st century however no longer continue to use the tripartite division of Caucasoids, but instead only recognise Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid through analysis of skeletal remains and not subraces of these racial groups.[111]

21st century

Y-haplogroups in Europe

In the 21st century there is a prevailing view amongst many anthropologists and biologists that completely "pure" races do not and have not existed.[112]

The 2014 edition of The World Factbook, produced by the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States, describes Spain's population as a "composite of Mediterranean and Nordic types".[113]

Population genetics

The emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined origin groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east-west axis of differentiation across Europe.[114][115][116] However, Finns seem to mark an exception in European genetic groups, as they seem not to share strong genetic relationship ties with other European countries, but instead appear to be genetically a rather isolated group.[117]

When looking at the Y-chromosome there are three large haplogroups which account for most of Europe's patrilineal descent.[118]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ↑ Hayes, Patrick J. (2012). The Making of Modern Immigration: An Encyclopedia of People and Ideas. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313392030. https://books.google.com/books?id=3GVqXgCkkmgC&pg=PA33. 
  2. ↑ Porterfield, Austin Larimore (1953). Wait the Withering Rain?. Leo Potishman Foundation. https://books.google.com/books?id=1r8OAQAAIAAJ&q. Retrieved 15 April 2015. 
  3. ↑ Hutton, Christopher (2005). Race and the Third Reich: Linguistics, Racial Anthropology and Genetics in the Dialectic of Volk. Polity. ISBN 9780745631776. https://books.google.com/books?id=IWDyVPi6pHgC&pg=PA108. Retrieved 15 April 2015. 
  4. ↑ Lynn, Richard (2001). Eugenics: A Reassessment. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 35–37. ISBN 9780275958220. https://books.google.com/books?id=XaiF6MeXFmQC&pg=PA36&lpg=PA36. 
  5. ↑ File:Passing of the Great Race - Map 4.jpg
  6. ↑ Grant, Madison (1921) The Passing of the Great Race, New York: Scribner's Sons. p.167
  7. ↑ Gunther, Hans F. K., The Racial Elements of European History, translated by G. C. Wheeler, Methuen & Co. LTD, London, 1927, p. 3
  8. ↑ Sharma, Ram Nath; Sharma, Rajendra K. (1997). Anthropology. Atlantic Publishers & Dist,. ISBN 9788171566730. https://books.google.com/books?id=dDrYsjGq35wC&pg=PA69. 
  9. ↑ Smedley, Audrey; Smedley, Brian D. (2012). Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview. Avalon Publishing. ISBN 9780813345543. https://books.google.com/books?id=7XofAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA243. 
  10. ↑ McManon, Richard (2016). The Races of Europe: Construction of National Identities in the Social Sciences, 1839-1939. Springer. ISBN 9781137318466. https://books.google.com/books?id=C8SADQAAQBAJ&pg=PA204. 
  11. ↑ Van den Berghe, Pierre L. (1987). The Ethnic Phenomenon. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780275927097. https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Ethnic_Phenomenon.html?id=esAA9Njteu0C&pg=PA225&dq=WASPs#v=onepage&q=nordic&f=false. 
  12. ↑ Tyson, Lois (2018). Critical Approaches to Literature. Routledge. ISBN 9781351049894. https://books.google.com/books?id=5QRGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT323. 
  13. ↑ Paulist Fathers (1927). Catholic World. 125. https://books.google.com/books?id=c5sEAAAAMAAJ&q. 
  14. ↑ Gregor, A James (1961). "Nordicism Revisted". Phylon 22 (4): 352–360. doi:10.2307/273538. 
  15. ↑ Huxley, Thomas. "The Aryan Question". http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE7/Aryan.html. Retrieved 2007-07-16. 
  16. ↑ Huxley, Thomas. "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind". http://cs.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html. Retrieved 2007-07-16. 
  17. ↑ Huxley, Thomas. On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006. aleph0.clarku.edu
  18. ↑ Vacher de Lapouge (trans Clossen, C), Georges (1899). "Old and New Aspects of the Aryan Question". The American Journal of Sociology 5 (3): 329–346. doi:10.1086/210895. 
  19. ↑ Detwiler, Bruce (1990). Nietzsche and the Politics of Aristocratic Radicalism. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-226-14354-5. 
  20. ↑ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1887). "On the Genealogy of Morals". http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/Nietzsche/genealogy1.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-18. 
  21. ↑ "Deniker, J., The Races of Man". Archived from the original on 1 May 2008. http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20080501233430/http://www.snpa.nordish.net/bilder/viii6d.JPG. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  22. ↑ Deniker, J. - Les Races de l'Europe (1899);The Races of Man (London: Walter Scott Ltd., 1900);Les Races et les Peuples de la Terre (Masson et Cie, Paris, 1926)
  23. ↑ Deniker (J.) "Essai d'une classification des races humaines, basée uniquement sur les caractères physiques". Bulletins de la Société d'anthropologie de Paris. Volume 12 Numéro 12. 1889. pp. 320-336.
  24. ↑ William Z. Ripley, in The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1899)
  25. ↑ Madison Grant, "The Passing of the Great Race", Scribner's Sons, 1921, p. 167
  26. ↑ John Higham (2002). Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925. Rutgers University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-8135-3123-6. 
  27. ↑ Bryan S Turner (1998). The Early Sociology of Class. Taylor & Francis. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-415-16723-9. 
  28. ↑ Arvidsson, Stefan (2006). Aryan Idols. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-226-02860-6. 
  29. ↑ Coon, Carleton (1939). The Races of Europe, chapter 1, Theory and Principles of the Concept Race. USA: Macmillan. 
  30. ↑ J.G. (1899). "review of The Races of Europe by William Z. Ripley". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 29 (1/2): 188–189. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Field, Geoffrey G. (1977). "Nordic Racism". Journal of the History of Ideas 38 (3): 523–40. doi:10.2307/2708681. ISSN 1086-3222. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Anna Bramwell. 1985. Blood and Soil: Richard Walther Darré and Hitler's "Green Party". Abbotsbrook, England: The Kensal Press. ISBN:0-946041-33-4, p. 39&40
  33. ↑ Andrea Orsucci, "Ariani, indogermani, stirpi mediterranee: aspetti del dibattito sulle razze europee (1870–1914) , Cromohs, 1998 (in Italian)
  34. ↑ Gunther, Hans F. K., The Racial Elements of European History, translated by G. C. Wheeler, Methuen & Co. LTD, London, 1927
  35. ↑ "de-Corded Nordic (and hence Danubian) prototype brachycephalized by Ladogan admixture." Plate 31: Neo-Danubians
  36. ↑ "Plate 32: Nordics Altered by Northwestern European Upper Palaeolithic Mixture: I". Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100901075651/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/p-32.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  37. ↑ "Plate 33: Nordics Altered by Northwestern European Upper Palaeolithic Mixture: II". Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100901075656/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/p-33.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  38. ↑ "Plate 34: Nordics Altered by Mixture with Southwestern Borreby and Alpine Elements". Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100901075701/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/p-34.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  39. ↑ examples from eastern Russia, Albania, Portugal and North Africa; Plate 30: Exotic Nordics
  40. ↑ "Plate 27: The Nordic Race: Examples of Corded Predominance". Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100414194158/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/p-27.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  41. ↑ "The Nordic Race: Hallstatt and Keltic Iron Age Types". Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100901075646/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/p-29.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  42. ↑ "Coon (1939), "Appendix II.: Glossary"". Archived from the original on 1 October 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20101001080000/http://carnby.altervista.org/troe/a-02.htm. Retrieved 22 October 2017. 
  43. ↑ Twilight of Man, Earnest Albert Hooton, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1939 p. 77.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Melville Jacobs, Bernhard Joseph Stern. General anthropology. Barnes & Noble, 1963. P. 57.
  45. ↑ R. Hegselmann, Ulrich Mueller, Klaus G. Troitzsch. Modelling and Simulation in the Social Sciences from the Philosophy of Science Point of View. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996. Pp. 118-
  46. ↑ McDougall, William (1973). The Group Mind. USA: Arno Press. p. 159. 
  47. ↑ "Suetonius, Life of Nero". May 2008. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html. Retrieved 2008-05-14. 
  48. ↑ "Pluatarch, Life of Sulla". May 2008. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sulla*.html. Retrieved 2008-05-14. 
  49. ↑ "Pluatarch, Life of Cato". May 2008. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cato_Major*.html. Retrieved 2008-05-14. 
  50. ↑ "All these are roads taken by Nordic tribes: by the Phrygians to Troy and Asia Minor; by the Nordic Hellenes to Greece; by the Nordic Italics (Romans) to Italy; by the Nordic Kelts to France and Spain. To these lands these tribes bring their Indo-European languages, and as the ruling class force them on to the subject, mainly Mediterranean, lower orders.",.Günther, Hans F K (1927). "The Racial Elements of European History". Methuen. p. chapter 8, part one. http://www.white-history.com/earlson/hfk/reoehchap8.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-18. 
  51. ↑ According to Madision Grant, "The Nordics are, all over the world, a race of soldiers, sailors, adventurers and explorers, but above all, of rulers, organisers and aristocrats in sharp contrast to the essentially peasant character of the Alpines ... The mental characteristics of the Mediterranean race are well known, and this race, while inferior in bodily stamina to both the Nordic and the Alpine, is probably the superior of both, certainly of the Alpines, in intellectual attainments." Grant accepts that Mediterraneans created Semitic and Egyptian cultures, but insisted that Greece was "invigorated" by Nordics, and that "Roman ideals of family life, loyalty, and truth, point clearly to a Nordic rather than to a Mediterranean origin" .Grant, Madison (1916). "The Passing of the Great Race". p. part 2, ch. 11; part 2, chapter 5. Archived from the original on 2007-06-08. https://web.archive.org/web/20070608061044/http://www.churchoftrueisrael.com/pgr/pgr-2.-11.html. Retrieved 2007-07-18. 
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  55. ↑ Coolidge, Calvin (1921). "Whose Country is This?". Good Housekeeping: 14. 
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  100. ↑ Fodor, M.W. (1936). "The Spread of Hitlerism". The Nation. Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20070715071640/http://newdeal.feri.org/nation/na3656.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-19. 
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  118. ↑ "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: a Y chromosome perspective", Science 290 (5494): 1155–9, November 2000, doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155, PMID 11073453, Bibcode: 2000Sci...290.1155S, http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11073453  Note: Haplogroup names are different in this article. For example: Haplogroup I is referred as M170

Further reading

  • Jackson, John P. (2005). Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4271-6. Lay summary (30 August 2010). 
  • Hans Jürgen Lutzhöft (1971): Der Nordische Gedanke in Deutschland 1920–1940. (in German) Stuttgart. Ernst Klett Verlag.
  • Spiro, Jonathan P. (2009). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. Univ. of Vermont Press. ISBN 978-1-58465-715-6. Lay summary (29 September 2010). 
  • Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Lay summary (4 September 2010). 

External links




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