Biography:Ole Ivar Lovaas

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O. Ivar Lovaas
Born
Ole Ivar Løvaas

8 May 1927
Lier, Norway
Died2 August 2010 (aged 83)
Lancaster, California, US
NationalityNorwegian American
EducationUniversity of Washington, PhD
OccupationClinical psychologist, researcher
EmployerProfessor emeritus, University of California, Los Angeles
Known forApplied behavior analysis
Discrete trial training
Autism research
Conversion therapy
Spouse(s)
Nina Watthen (m. 1986)

Beryl Scoles (m. 1955; divorced)

Ole Ivar Lovaas (8 May 1927 – 2 August 2010)[1][2] was a Norwegian-American clinical psychologist and professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. He was most well known for his research on what is now called applied behavior analysis (ABA) to modify the behavior of autistic children through prompts, modeling, and positive reinforcement. His methods included the use of aversives (punishment), such as electric shocks and slaps, to reduce undesired behavior.

Lovaas' work influenced how autism is treated, and he received widespread acclaim and several awards during his lifetime, but also strong criticisms from many autistic activists and researchers aligned with the autistic rights and neurodiversity movements.[3][4] Lovaas has also been criticized (including contemporaneously by other ABA researchers) for his participation in a study that tested the efficacy of conversion therapy on a 4-year-old boy.

Personal life

Lovaas was born in Lier, Norway, on 8 May 1927 to Hildur and Ernst Albert Løvaas, who was a watchmaker and journalist before taking leadership roles in the Nasjonal Samling party.[1][5] He had two siblings: an older sister named Nora and a younger brother named Hans Erik.[6] Lovaas attended Hegg Elementary School in Lier from 1934 to 1941. He attended junior high school at Drammen Realskole until 1944, and then moved on to Drammen Latin School for high school. He was enrolled in a program focusing on English as a second language and graduated in 1947. After high school, Lovaas served in the Norwegian Air Force for 18 months as a medic.[6]

Lovaas claimed he was a forced farm worker during the 1940s Nazi occupation of Norway, and often said that observing the Nazis had sparked his interest in human behavior and belief that behavior, both positive and negative, could be conditioned. However, his claims about forced farm labor cannot be reconciled with school records that show he was continuously enrolled in classes during the occupation. The family were members of the fascist Nasjonal Samling (NS) Nazi collaborationist party: Lovaas' father was a high-ranking member who became one of Norway's "most important and influential Nazi propagandists", and Lovaas and his sister were active members; his mother and brother were also members, though not especially active. Lovaas himself was a member of the NS Youth League, patterned after the Hitler Youth and named after the Norwegian Hirden paramilitary organization. He stated he joined in 1941. The following year, he attended a six-week course at the league's prestigious fører ('führer') school in Jessheim and was subsequently made leader of a local chapter. Both he and his father are listed in Norway's "National Treason" files documenting Nazi collaboration. Scholar Åsmund Borgen Gjerde, who wrote on Lovaas' background and link to the NS, states, however, that it is hard to state what the significance of this time of Lovaas' life may have been.[5][7]

Following World War II, Lovaas moved to the United States; at that time he changed the spelling of his surname from Løvaas to Lovaas.[6] There he married Beryl Scoles in 1955, and together they had four children. Lovaas later divorced his wife and married Nina Watthen in 1986.[2][7]

Career

He began attending Luther College in Decorah, Iowa, in 1950, on a violin scholarship. He graduated after just one year with his B.A. in sociology. Lovaas received his Masters of Science in clinical psychology from the University of Washington in 1955, and his PhD in learning and clinical psychology from the same school three years later.[6]

Early in his career, Lovaas worked at the Pinel foundation, which focused on Freudian psychoanalysis.[6] After earning his PhD, he took a position at the University of Washington's Child Development Institute, where he first learned of behavior analysis. Lovaas began teaching at UCLA in 1961 in the Department of Psychology, where he performed research on autistic children at the school's Neuropsychiatric Institute.[8] He started an early intervention clinic at UCLA called the UCLA Young Autism Project, which provided intensive intervention inside the children's homes. He was named professor emeritus in 1994. Lovaas also established the Lovaas Institute for Early Intervention (LIFE) that provides interventions based on his research.[6][9]

He came to prominence for his work with autistic children in a 1965 feature in Life magazine.[5]

Lovaas taught prominent behaviorists, such as Robert Koegel, Laura Schreibman, Tristram Smith, Doreen Granpeesheh, John McEachin, Ron Leaf and Jacquie Wynn, as well as thousands of UCLA students who took his "Behavior Modification" course during his 50 years of teaching. He also published hundreds of research articles and several books and received many accolades for his research. Due to this research, a number of school districts have adopted his programs. His work influenced how autism is treated.[9][10][11][12]

Smith worked under Lovaas as a graduate student in the 1980s and described him as having a mercurial nature in a 2010 interview conducted after Lovaas' death. Smith stated the following:

I have to say, though, that I also had to develop a certain amount of equanimity. Lovaas could praise me extravagantly on some occasions yet give brusque criticism at other times; tell me to insert a passage into a manuscript that he would later reproach me for, excite his whole team about a new project or idea only to abandon it at the next meeting, set an agenda but then spend an entire meeting talking about something else altogether, and appear at meetings in a jovial mood or livid because of a mistake or oversight on my part. These ups and downs could be difficult, but I came to see them as a form of creative destruction that would ultimately lead to an original, important contribution.[13]

Research

Autism intervention

Early research

File:O. Ivar Lovaas ABA experiments on autistic kids 1965.webm Lovaas established the Young Autism Project clinic at UCLA in 1962, where he began his research, authored training manuals, and recorded tapes of him and his graduate students implementing errorless learning—based on operant conditioning and what was then referred to as behavior modification—to instruct autistic children. He later coined the term "discrete trial training" to describe the procedure, which was used to teach listener responding, eye contact, fine and gross motor imitation, receptive and expressive language, academic, and a variety of other skills. In an errorless discrete trial, the child sits at a table across from the therapist who provides an instruction (i.e., "do this", "look at me", "point to", etc.), followed by a prompt, then the child's response, and a stimulus reinforcer. The prompts are later discontinued once the child demonstrates proficiency. During this time, Lovaas and colleagues also employed physical aversives (punishment), such as electric shocks and slaps, to decrease aggressive and self-injurious behavior, as well as verbal reprimands if the child answered incorrectly or engaged in self-stimulatory behavior.[1][11][14]

1987 study

In 1987, Lovaas published a study[15] which demonstrated that, following forty hours a week of treatment, 9 of the 19 autistic children developed typical spoken language, increased IQs by 30 points on average, and were placed in regular classrooms. A 1993 follow-up study[16] found that 8 maintained their gains and were "indistinguishable from their typically developing peers", scoring in the normal range of social and emotional functioning. His studies were limited because Lovaas did not randomize the participants or treatment groups. This produced a quasi-experiment in which he was able to control the assignment of children to treatment groups. His manipulation of the study in this way may have been responsible for the observed effects. The true efficacy of his method cannot be determined since his studies cannot be repeated for ethical reasons.[17][18][19] A 1998 study subsequently recommended that EIBI programs be regarded with skepticism.[19] In 1999, the United States Surgeon General's office wrote, "Thirty years of research has demonstrated the efficacy of applied behavioral methods in reducing inappropriate behavior and in increasing communication, learning, and appropriate social behavior", and he also endorsed the 1987 study.[20]

Literature reviews

According to a 2007 review study in Pediatrics, "The effectiveness of [EIBI] in [autism spectrum disorder] has been well-documented through 5 decades of research by using single-subject methodology and in controlled studies... in university and community settings." It further stated, "Children who receive early intensive behavioral treatment have been shown to make substantial, sustained gains in IQ, language, academic performance, and adaptive behavior as well as some measures of social behavior, and their outcomes have been significantly better than those of children in control groups." However, the study also recommended to later generalize the child's skills with more naturalistic ABA-based procedures, such as incidental teaching and pivotal response treatment, so their progress is maintained.[21]

Another review in 2008 described DTT as a "'well-established' psychosocial intervention for improving the intellectual performance of young children with autism spectrum disorders..."[22] In 2011, it was found that the intervention is effective for some, but "the literature is limited by methodological concerns" due to there being small sample sizes and very few studies that used random assignment,[23] and a 2018 Cochrane review subsequently indicated low-quality evidence to support this method.[8] Nonetheless, a meta-analysis in the same journal database concludes how some recent research is beginning to suggest that because of the heterology of ASD, there are a wide range of different learning styles and that it is the children with lower receptive language skills who acquire spoken language from Lovaas' treatment.[24] In 2023, a multi-site randomized control trial study of 164 participants indicated similar findings.[25]

UCLA Feminine Boy Project

See also: Unsolved:Conversion therapy

In 1974, Lovaas and George Rekers released the first in a series of papers associated with the Feminine Boy Project, a collective academic effort to formally develop conversion therapy (which consists of various discredited and abusive treatments intended to alter someone's sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression to fit societal norms[26]). The paper described the use of operant conditioning to force Kirk Murphy (then a 4-year-old boy who was behaving in a traditionally feminine way) to behave in a gender-conforming manner. Lovaas and Rekers said in the paper that they hoped experimenting on Murphy would help them develop a method to prevent "adult transsexualism or similar adult sex-role deviation."[27][28][29][30][31][32]

Murphy died by suicide in 2003; some members of his family attributed the suicide to the trauma he endured during the study. Despite one of the subsequent papers (which Lovaas did not co-author) concluding that the conditioning Murphy was subjected to changed his sexual orientation from gay to heterosexual, his sister rejected that conclusion and claimed that Murphy "was conditioned to say that." After reviewing Murphy's journal entries, his sister described how he feared disclosing he was gay due to his father spanking him for playing with dolls and exhibiting other gender non-conforming behaviors. Murphy's brother stated, "I saw my brother's whole back side bruised so badly one time, my dad should have gone to jail for it."[27][31][33][34][35]

In October 2020, the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) issued an expression of concern about the Rekers and Lovaas paper, which they had originally published. In the expression of concern, the journal editors acknowledged that the study would have violated ethical standards if conducted at the time of writing, but claimed they chose not to rescind the paper because they did not believe the study violated the ethical standards of its time.[36] In a note accompanying the expression of concern, the journal's editors acknowledged the psychological harm the study did to Murphy and his family (although they qualified that his suicide could not be causally linked to the study). The editors also acknowledged the harm the study did to the LGBTQ+ community by falsely validating the efficacy of conversion therapy and stated that conversion therapy was not representative of the field of ABA as a whole.[37]

JABA's justification for not retracting the paper was rejected by some members of academia, including Arthur Kaplan, who founded the medical ethics division at the New York University Grossman School of Medicine,[38] and Austin Johnson, the director of the school psychology program at the University of California, Riverside's Graduate School of Education.[31] Kaplan, who claimed he had "never seen such a 'historically oriented' disclosure," further stated, "I think many would have found punishing this behavior wrong by the standards of the day so I am not persuaded this note is accurate."[39] Johnson stated, "Rekers and Lovaas abused Kirk Murphy, a cisgender gay man who ultimately committed suicide in 2003. The words used and actions described in Rekers and Lovaas are abusive and shameful. They did not have value in 1974. They do not have value now. To comply with editorial guidelines and basic human decency, JABA must retract this paper." Johnson also pointed out that the treatment of Murphy had been contemporaneously labeled unethical by some of Lovaas' peers, including ABA researcher Donald M. Baer, and that the American Psychiatric Association had already depathologized homosexuality at the time the paper was published.[31]

Some members of the Autistic community, including some who have undergone ABA themselves, have labeled ABA "autistic conversion therapy" and directly compared it to conversion therapy targeting the queer community.[32][40][41][42][43][44]

Awards and accolades

Lovaas received praise from several organizations during his lifetime. In 2001, he was given the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology Distinguished Career Award.[45] He received the Edgar Doll Award from the 33rd Division of the American Psychological Association, the Lifetime Research Achievement Award from the 55th Division of the American Psychological Association, and the Award for Effective Presentation of Behavior Analysis in the Mass Media by the Association for Behavior Analysis International. Lovaas also earned a Guggenheim fellowship and the California Senate Award, which is an honorary doctorate. He was named a Fellow by Division 7 of the American Psychological Association and was given the Champion of Mental Health Award by Psychology Today.[46]

Criticism

The goal of making autistic people indistinguishable from their peers has attracted significant backlash from autistic activists and advocates. Julia Bascom of the Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN) has said "ASAN's objection is fundamentally an ethical one. The stated end goal of ABA is an autistic child who is 'indistinguishable from their peers'—an autistic child who can pass as neurotypical. We don't think that's an acceptable goal. The end goal of all services, supports, interventions, and therapies an autistic child receives should be to support them in growing up into an autistic adult who is happy, healthy, and living a self-determined life."[47][when?] In his article on Lovaas' background, Gjerde states that Lovaas and other behavior analysts insisted on "normality and productivity" in autistic people, citing a 1981 quote from Lovaas: "No one has the right to be taken care of, no matter how retarded he is.… [Children] have no right to act bizarrely, many professional opinions notwithstanding. On the contrary, you have a right to expect decent behavior from your children".[48]

Lovaas has also been criticized for his dehumanizing view of autistic people. During a 1974 interview with Psychology Today, Lovaas stated, "You start pretty much from scratch when you work with an autistic person. You have a person in the physical sense – they have hair, a nose, a mouth – but they are not people in the psychological sense."[49][50]

Aversives

Lovaas is credited with popularizing the use of aversives in behavior modification, as shown in a Life magazine photo spread in 1965.[51]

He later admitted that they were only temporarily effective and punishments became less effective over time.[52] Eventually, Lovaas abandoned these tactics, telling CBS in a 1994 interview, "These people are so used to pain that they can adapt to almost any kind of aversive you give them."[53]

See also

Human rights

  • Autistic rights movement
  • Neurotribes

Behaviorism

Bibliography

  • The Autistic Child: Language Development Through Behavior Modification, 1977
  • Teaching Developmentally Disabled Children: The Me Book, 1981
  • Teaching Individuals With Developmental Delays: Basic Intervention Techniques, 2003

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Larsson, Eric V; Wright, Scott (2011). "O. Ivar Lovaas (1927–2010)". The Behavior Analyst 34 (1): 111–114. doi:10.1007/BF03392239. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Fox, Margalit (August 2010). "O. Ivar Lovaas, pioneer in developing therapies for autism, dies at 83" (in en). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/23/health/23lovaas.html. 
  3. ↑ Ne'Eman, A. (2021). "When Disability is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote "Passing"". AMA Journal of Ethics 23 (7): E569–E575. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.569. PMID 34351268. 
  4. ↑ "Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)". https://therapistndc.org/applied-behavior-analysis-aba/. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Gjerde, Åsmund Borgen (14 May 2025). "Hidden Nazi past: Ole Ivar Lovaas during the German occupation of Norway". History of the Human Sciences 38 (3–4): 58–81. doi:10.1177/09526951251324102. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Özerk, Kamil; Eikeseth, Svein; Vea, Gunvor Dalby; Özerk, Meral (December 2016). "Ole Ivar Lovaas – His Life, Merits and Legacy". International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education 9 (2). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1126605.pdf. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Ole Ivar Lovaas dies at 83; UCLA psychology professor pioneered autism treatment" (in en-US). 2010-08-06. https://www.latimes.com/la-me-ivar-lovaas-20100806-story.html. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 5 (10). May 2018. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3. PMID 29742275. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Smith, Tristram; Eikeseth, Svein (March 2011). "O. Ivar lovaas: pioneer of applied behavior analysis and intervention for children with autism". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 41 (3): 375–378. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1162-0. ISSN 1573-3432. PMID 21153872. 
  10. ↑ "O. Ivar Lovaas (1927–2010)". The Behavior Analyst 34 (1): 111–114. 2011. doi:10.1007/BF03392239. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Smith, T.; Eikeseth, S. (2011). "O. Ivar Lovaas: Pioneer of applied behavior analysis and intervention for children with autism". J Autism Dev Disord 41 (3): 375–378. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1162-0. PMID 21153872. 
  12. ↑ Leaf, Ronald; McEachin, John; Taubman, Mitchell (2008). Sense and nonsense in the behavioral treatment of autism: It has to be said. New York: DRL. pp. 13–35. ISBN 978-0-975-58599-3. 
  13. ↑ Pritchard, Josh; Ross, Allyson (Fall 2010). "Interview with a Board Member: Tristram Smith". https://asatonline.org/wp-content/uploads/NewsletterIssues/fall2010.pdf. 
  14. ↑ "Screams, slaps, and love: The strange birth of applied behavior analysis". Pediatrics 133 (3): 364–366. March 2014. doi:10.1542/peds.2013-2583. PMID 24534411. https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/3/364. 
  15. ↑ Lovaas, O. Ivar (1987). "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children.". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.55.1.3. ISSN 1939-2117. PMID 3571656. 
  16. ↑ Lovaas, O. Ivar; Smith, Tristram (1988), "Intensive Behavioral Treatment for Young Autistic Children", Advances in Clinical Child Psychology (Boston, MA: Springer US): pp. 285–324, doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9829-5_8, ISBN 978-1-4613-9831-8 
  17. ↑ Boyd, R. D. (June 1998). "Sex as a possible source of group inequivalence in Lovaas (1987)". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 28 (3): 211–215. doi:10.1023/a:1026065321080. ISSN 0162-3257. PMID 9656132. 
  18. ↑ Schopler, E.; Short, A.; Mesibov, G. (February 1989). "Relation of behavioral treatment to "normal functioning": comment on Lovaas". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 57 (1): 162–164. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.57.1.162. ISSN 0022-006X. PMID 2925968. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Gresham, F. M.; MacMillan, D. L. (February 1998). "Early intervention project: Can its claims be substantiated and its effects replicated?". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 28 (1): 5–13. doi:10.1023/a:1026002717402. ISSN 0162-3257. PMID 9546297. 
  20. ↑ Center for Homeland Defense and Security (1999). "Mental health: A report of the surgeon general". National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Department of Health and Human Services: 164. https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=730796. Retrieved 28 August 2020. 
  21. ↑ "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics 120 (5): 1162–1182. November 2007. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2362. PMID 17967921. 
  22. ↑ "Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 37 (1): 8–38. January 2008. doi:10.1080/15374410701817808. PMID 18444052. 
  23. ↑ "A systematic review of early intensive intervention for autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics 127 (5): 1303–1311. May 2011. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-0426. PMID 21464190. https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/127/5/e1303. 
  24. ↑ Brignell A, Chenausky KV, Song H, Zhu J, Suo C, Morgan AT (November 2018). "Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018 (11): CD01234PMC. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2. PMID 30395694. 
  25. ↑ Kasari C, Shire S, Shih W, Landa R, Levato L, Smith T (June 2023). "Spoken language outcomes in limited language preschoolers with autism and global developmental delay: RCT of early intervention approaches". Autism Research 16 (6): 1236–1246. doi:10.1002/aur.2932. PMID 37070270. 
  26. ↑ "Conversion therapies" (in en). https://www.quebec.ca/en/family-and-support-for-individuals/violence/homophobia-transphobia/conversion-therapies. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Rekers, George A.; Lovaas, O. Ivar (1974). "Behavioral treatment of deviant sex-role behaviors in a male child". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 7 (2): 173–190. doi:10.1901/jaba.1974.7-173. PMID 4436165. Template:Expression of Concern
  28. ↑ Rekers, George A.; Lovaas, O. Ivar; Low, Benson (June 1974). "The behavioral treatment of a "transsexual" preadolescent boy". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 2 (2): 99–116. doi:10.1007/BF00919093. PMID 4430820. 
  29. ↑ Rekers, George A.; Bentler, Peter M.; Rosen, Alexander C.; Lovaas, O. Ivar (Spring 1977). "Child gender disturbances: A clinical rationale for intervention". Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice 14 (1): 2–11. doi:10.1037/h0087487. 
  30. ↑ Rekers, George A.; Rosen, Alexander C.; Lovaas, O. Ivar; Bentler, Peter M. (February 1978). "Sex-role stereotypy and professional intervention for childhood gender disturbance". Professional Psychology 9 (1): 127–136. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.9.1.127. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Johnson, Austin (2021-01-27). "Child abuse doesn't belong in science". https://education.ucr.edu/news/2021/01/27/child-abuse-doesnt-belong-science. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Kislenko, Cassandra (2022-04-20). "Why the 'treatment' of autism is a form of conversion therapy". https://xtramagazine.com/health/autism-conversion-therapy-221581. 
  33. ↑ Bronstein, Scott; Joseph, Jessi (7 June 2011). "Therapy to change 'feminine' boy created a troubled man, family says". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/06/07/sissy.boy.experiment/index.html. 
  34. ↑ Szalavitz, Maia (8 June 2011). "The 'sissy boy' experiment: Why gender-related cases call for scientists' humility". Time. https://healthland.time.com/2011/06/08/the-sissy-boy-experiment-why-gender-related-cases-call-for-scientists-humility/. 
  35. ↑ Warren Throckmorton (9 June 2011). "Experts and homosexuality: Don't try this at home". HuffPost. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/warren-throckmorton-phd/experts-and-homosexuality_b_873017.html. 
  36. ↑ "Expression of Concern". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 53 (4): 1837. September 2020. doi:10.1002/jaba.781. PMID 33084123. 
  37. ↑ Behavior, The Society for the Experimental Analysis of (2020). "Editor's Note: Societal changes and expression of concern about Rekers and Lovaas' (1974) Behavioral Treatment of Deviant Sex-Role Behaviors in a Male Child" (in en). Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 53 (4): 1830–1836. doi:10.1002/jaba.768. ISSN 1938-3703. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jaba.768. 
  38. ↑ "A Pioneering Voice in Bioethics: Arthur Caplan, PhD | NexBioHealth-Shaping Futures" (in en-US). 2025-05-01. https://nexbiohealth.org/dr-arthur-caplan/. 
  39. ↑ Says, Gcmale (2020-10-22). "Journal flags — but does not retract — decades-old paper on "correcting" gender identity" (in en-US). https://retractionwatch.com/2020/10/22/journal-flags-but-does-not-retract-decades-old-paper-on-correcting-gender-identity/. 
  40. ↑ "For Whose Benefit? Evidence, Ethics, and Effectiveness of Autism Interventions". December 2021. https://autisticadvocacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ACWP-Ethics-of-Intervention.pdf. 
  41. ↑ Gibson, Margaret F.; Douglas, Patty (2018-10-16). "Disturbing Behaviours: Ole Ivar Lovaas and the Queer History of Autism Science" (in en). Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience 4 (2): 1–28. doi:10.28968/cftt.v4i2.29579. ISSN 2380-3312. https://catalystjournal.org/index.php/catalyst/article/view/29579. 
  42. ↑ Pyne, Jake (2020-11-17). ""Building a Person": Legal and Clinical Personhood for Autistic and Trans Children in Ontario". Canadian Journal of Law & Society 35 (2): 341–365. doi:10.1017/cls.2020.8. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/canadian-journal-of-law-and-society-la-revue-canadienne-droit-et-societe/article/building-a-person-legal-and-clinical-personhood-for-autistic-and-trans-children-in-ontario/2041374EDCDAD44AE2DE1EB9D2C16361. 
  43. ↑ Tung, Liz (2022-10-24). "How a therapy once seen as a victory for autistic kids has come under fire as abuse". WHYY. https://whyy.org/segments/how-a-therapy-once-seen-as-a-victory-for-autistic-kids-has-come-under-fire-as-abuse/. 
  44. ↑ Kronstein, Alex (2018-07-11). "Treating autism as a problem: The connection between Gay Conversion Therapy and ABA". The Nova Scotia Advocate. https://nsadvocate.org/2018/07/11/treating-autism-as-a-problem-the-connection-between-gay-conversion-therapy-and-aba/. 
  45. ↑ SCCAP Award Winners: Division 53, (Retrieved 29 May 2018)
  46. ↑ IshYoBoy.com. "Dr. Ole Ivar Lovaas | Pioneer of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)" (in en-US). The Lovaas Center. http://thelovaascenter.com/about-us/dr-ivar-lovaas/. 
  47. ↑ "Applied behavior analysis (ABA)" (in en-US). https://therapistndc.org/therapy/applied-behavior-analysis-aba/. 
  48. ↑ Cited in Gjerde, Åsmund Borgen (14 May 2025). "Hidden Nazi past: Ole Ivar Lovaas during the German occupation of Norway". History of the Human Sciences 38 (3–4): 58–81. doi:10.1177/09526951251324102. 
  49. ↑ Chance, Paul (January 1974). "'After you hit a child, you can't just get up and leave him; you are hooked to that kid': A conversation with Ivar Lovaas about self-mutilating children and how their parents make it worse". Psychology Today (New York, NY: Sussex Publishers): 76. "You see, you start pretty much from scratch when you work with an autistic child. You have a person in the physical sense—they have hair, a nose, and a mouth—but they are not people in the psychological sense.". 
  50. ↑ Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Happé, Francesca (2019). Autism: A New Introduction to Psychological Theory and Current Debates (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-138-10612-3. 
  51. ↑ "Screams, Slaps, and Love: A Surprising, Shocking Treatment Helps Far-Gone Mental Cripples.". Life. 7 May 1965. https://books.google.com/books?id=TVMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA91. Retrieved 18 May 2025. 
  52. ↑ Gonnerman, Jennifer. "The school of shock" (in en-US). https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2007/08/school-shock/. 
  53. ↑ "Eye to Eye" (in en). TV Guide. https://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/eye-to-eye/episode-842182/201230. 

Further reading



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