Biology:Calliphoridae

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Short description: Family of insects in the Diptera order

Calliphoridae
Chrysomya megacephala male.jpg
Male Chrysomya megacephala
Scientific classification e
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Superfamily: Oestroidea
Family: Calliphoridae
Brauer & Bergenstamm, 1889[1]
Subfamilies

The Calliphoridae (commonly known as blow flies, blow-flies, carrion flies, bluebottles, or greenbottles)[5] are a family of insects in the order Diptera, with almost 1,900 known species. The maggot larvae, often used as fishing bait, are known as gentles.[6] The family is known to be polyphyletic, but much remains disputed regarding proper treatment of the constituent taxa,[7] some of which are occasionally accorded family status (e.g., Bengaliidae and Helicoboscidae).[8]

The name blowfly comes from an older English term for meat that had eggs laid on it, which was said to be flyblown. The first known association of the term "blow" with flies appears in the plays of William Shakespeare: Love's Labour's Lost, The Tempest, and Antony and Cleopatra.[9][10][5][11]

Description

Characteristics

Calliphoridae adults are commonly shiny with metallic colouring, often with blue, green, or black thoraces and abdomens. Antennae are three-segmented and aristate. The aristae are plumose their entire length, and the second antennal segment is distinctly grooved. Members of Calliphoridae have branched Rs 2 veins, frontal sutures are present, and calypters are well developed.[citation needed]

The characteristics and arrangements of hairlike bristles are used to differentiate among members of this family. All blowflies have bristles located on the meron. Having two notopleural bristles and a hindmost posthumeral bristle located lateral to presutural bristle are characteristics to look for when identifying this family.[citation needed]

The thorax has the continuous dorsal suture across the middle, along with well-defined posterior calli. The postscutellum is absent or weakly developed. The costa is unbroken and the subcosta is apparent on the insect.[12][13][14]

Development

Most species of blow flies studied thus far are anautogenous; a female requires a substantial amount of protein to develop mature eggs within her ovaries (about 800 µg per pair of ovaries in Phormia regina). The current theory is that females visit carrion both for protein and egg laying, but this remains to be proven. Blow fly eggs, usually yellowish or white in color, are about 1.5 mm × 0.4 mm, and when laid, look like rice grains. While the female blow fly typically lays 150–200 eggs per batch, she is usually iteroparous, laying around 2,000 eggs during the course of her life. The sex ratio of blow fly eggs is usually 50:50, but one exception is females from two species of the genus Chrysomya (C. rufifacies and C. albiceps), which are either arrhenogenic (laying only male offspring) or thelygenic (laying only female offspring).[citation needed]

Hatching from an egg to the first larval stage takes about 8 hours to a day. Larvae have three stages of development (instars); each stage is separated by a molting event. The instars are separable by examining the posterior spiracles, or openings to the breathing system.[15] The larvae use proteolytic enzymes in their excreta (as well as mechanical grinding by mouth hooks) to break down proteins on the livestock or corpse on which they are feeding. Blow flies are poikilothermic – the rate at which they grow and develop is highly dependent on temperature and species. Under room temperature (about 20 °C), the black blow fly Phormia regina can change from egg to pupa in 150–266 hours (six to 11 days). When the third larval stage is complete, it leaves the corpse and burrows into the ground to pupate, emerging as an adult 7–14 days later.[citation needed]

Food sources

Adult blowflies are occasional pollinators, being attracted to flowers with strong odors resembling rotting meat, such as the American pawpaw or dead horse arum. Little doubt remains that these flies use nectar as a source of carbohydrates to fuel flight, but just how and when this happens is unknown. One study showed the visual stimulus a blowfly receives from its compound eyes is responsible for causing its legs to extend from its flight position and allow it to land on any surface.[16]

Larvae of most species are scavengers of carrion and dung, and most likely constitute the majority of the maggots found in such material, although they are not uncommonly found in close association with other dipterous larvae from the families Sarcophagidae and Muscidae, and many other acalyptrate muscoid flies.[citation needed]

Predators

Predators of blow flies include spiders,[17] beetles, frogs, and birds, including chickens.

In the Chihuahuan desert of Mexico, a fungus, Furia vomitoriae (Rozsypal) Humber (1989) (from the family of Entomophthoraceae) affects bluebottle flies. It forms masses of conidiophores erupting through the intersegmental areas (or clear bands) on the abdominal dorsum of the flies and eventually kills them[18]

Diversity

About 1,900 species of blow flies are known, with 120 species in the Neotropics, and a large number of species in Africa and Southern Europe.[citation needed]

The typical habitats for blow flies are temperate to tropical areas that provide a layer of loose, damp soil and litter where larvae may thrive and pupate.[citation needed]

Genera

Close-up of the head of Calliphora vomitoria
A Calliphora livida fly specimen
Calliphora hilli
Calliphora augur
A close-up of the head of a Calliphora

Sources: MYIA,[19] FE,[20] Nomina,[21] A/O DC[22]

This is a selected list of genera from the Palearctic, Nearctic, Malaysia (Japan) and Australasia:



Economic importance

Myiasis

Blowflies have caught the interest of researchers in a variety of fields, although the large body of literature on calliphorids has been concentrated on solving the problem of myiasis in livestock. The sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina causes the Australian sheep industry an estimated AU$170 million a year in losses.[citation needed]

The most common causes of myiasis in humans and animals are the three dipteran families Oestridae, Calliphoridae, and Sarcophagidae. Myiasis in humans is clinically categorized in six ways: dermal and subdermal, facial cavity, wound or trauma, gastrointestinal, vaginal, and generalized. If found in humans, the dipteran larvae are usually in their first instar. The only treatment necessary is just to remove the maggots, and the patient heals naturally.[57] Whilst not strictly a myiasis species, the Congo floor maggot feeds on mammal blood, occasionally human.[citation needed]

Screwworms

The New World primary screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax), once a major pest in Southern United States, has been eradicated from the United States, Mexico, and Central America through an extensive release program by the USDA of sterilized males. The USDA maintains a sterile screwworm fly production plant and release program in the eastern half of the Republic of Panama to keep fertile screwworms from migrating north. Currently, this species is limited to lowland tropical countries in South America and some Caribbean islands.[citation needed]

The Old World primary screwworm (Chrysomya bezziana) is an obligate parasite of mammals. This fly is distributed throughout the Old World, including Southeast Asia, tropical and subtropical Africa, some countries in the Middle East, India, the Malay Peninsula, the Indonesian and Philippine Islands, and Papua New Guinea.[58]

The secondary screwworm (Cochliomyia macellaria) has become one of the principal species on which to base post mortem interval estimations because its succession and occurrence on decomposing remains has been well defined. The secondary screwworm is found throughout the United States and the American tropics, and in southern Canada during summers. This species is one of the most common species found on decomposing remains in the US South.[59]

Maggot therapy

Maggot debridement therapy (MDT) is the medical use of selected, laboratory-raised fly larvae for cleaning nonhealing wounds. Medicinal maggots perform debridement by selectively eating only dead tissue. Lucilia sericata (Phaenicia sericata), or the common green bottlefly, is the preferred species used in maggot therapy.[60] MDT can be used to treat pressure ulcers, diabetic foot wounds, venous stasis ulcers, and postsurgical wounds.[61]

Disease

Adults may be vectors of pathogens of diseases such as dysentery. Flies, most commonly Calliphoridae, have frequently been associated with disease transmission in humans and animals, as well as myiasis. Studies and research have linked Calliphora and Lucilia to vectors of causal agents of bacterial infections. These larvae, commonly seen on decaying bodies, feed on carrion while the adults can be necrophagous or vegetative. During the process of decay, microorganisms (e.g. Mycobacterium) may be released through the body. Flies arrive at the scene and lay their eggs. The larvae begin eating and breaking down the corpse, simultaneously ingesting these organisms which is the first step of one transmission route.[citation needed]

The bacterium which causes paratuberculosis in cattle, pigs and birds (M. a. avium) has been isolated and recovered from these flies through several different experiments.[citation needed]

Other potential and threatening diseases include rabbit haemorrhagic disease[citation needed] in New Zealand and flystrike. Although strike is not limited to blow flies, these maggots are a major source of this skin invasion, causing lesions, which, if severe enough, may be lethal. Strike starts when blow flies lay eggs in a wound or fecal material present on the sheep. When the maggots hatch, they begin feeding on the sheep and thus irritating it. As soon as the first wave of maggots hatch, they attract more blow flies, causing the strike. Insecticides are available for blow fly prevention (typically containing cypermethrin[62]), and precautionary measures may be taken, such as docking tails, shearing, and keeping the sheep healthy overall.[63][64]

Salmonellosis has also been proven to be transmitted by the blow fly through saliva, feces and direct contact by the flies' tarsi. Adult flies may be able to spread pathogens via their sponging mouthparts, vomit, intestinal tract, sticky pads of their feet, or even their body or leg hairs.[65]

As the flies are vectors of many diseases, the importance of identifying the transmissible agents, the route of transmission, and prevention and treatments in the event of contact are becoming increasingly important. With the ability to lay hundreds of eggs in a lifetime and the presence of thousands of larvae at a time in such close proximity, the potential for transmission is high, especially at ideal temperatures.[citation needed]

Pollination

Calliphoridae are, alongside managed and wild bees, likely to be the main crop pollinating insect. They visit (and thus may pollinate) flowers of a wide range of plants, including crop plants (e.g. avocado, mango, onion, leek, carrot, cauliflower). Their sponging mouthparts mean that when visiting flowers, their head and upper body must broadly contact the inside of the flower. They have numerous hairs, including on the head and thorax, which may help them carry pollen, and indeed calliphorids in the wild have been observed carrying large amounts of pollen. Compared to honey bees, blow flies are active under a broader range of environmental conditions. However, it is unknown how their pollination abilities compare to those of bees, there are few studies assessing their contribution to pollination, and the exact species that pollinate are often not identified.[66]

Forensic importance

Blow flies are usually the first insects to come in contact with carrion because they have the ability to smell dead animal matter from up to 1 mi (1.6 km) away.[67] Upon reaching the carrion, females deposit eggs on it. Since development is highly predictable if the ambient temperature is known, blow flies are considered a valuable tool in forensic science. Blow flies are used forensically to estimate the minimum post mortem interval (PMImin) for human corpses.[68] Traditional estimations of time since death are generally unreliable after 72 hours and often entomologists are the only officials capable of generating an accurate approximate time interval. The specialized discipline related to this practice is known as forensic entomology.[69]

In addition to being used to estimate the PMImin, assuming colonization occurred after death, blow fly specimens found infesting a human corpse are used to determine if the corpse was relocated or if the individual ingested narcotics prior to death.[citation needed]

Calliphora vicina and Cynomya mortuorum are important flies of forensic entomology. Other forensically important Calliphoridae are Phormia regina, Calliphora vomitoria, Calliphora livida, Lucilia cuprina, Lucilia sericata, Lucilia illustris, Chrysomya rufifacies, Chrysomya megacephala, Cochliomyia macellaria, and Protophormia terraenovae. One myth states that species from the genus Lucilia can sense death and show up right before it even occurs.[9]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Brauer, F.; Bergenstamm, J. E. von (1889). "Die Zweiflugler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. IV. Vorarbeiten zu einer Monographie der Muscaria Schizometopa (exclusive Anthomyidae).Pars I". Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 56 (1): 69–180. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/7109187#page/115/mode/1up. Retrieved 25 November 2014. 
  2. ↑ Rognes, Knut (13 July 2011). "A review of the monophyly and composition of the Bengaliinae with the description of a new genus and species, and new evidence for the presence of Melanomyinae in the Afrotropical Region (Diptera, Calliphoridae)". Zootaxa 2964 (1): 1. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2964.1.1. 
  3. ↑ Rognes, Knut (1986). "The systematic position of the genus Helicobosca Bezzi with a discussion of the monophyly of the calyptrate families Calliphoridae, Rhinophoridae, Sarcophagidae and Tachinidae (Diptera)". Insect Systematics & Evolution 17 (1): 75–92. doi:10.1163/187631286X00125. 
  4. ↑ Yan, Liping; Pape, Thomas; Meusemann, Karen; Kutty, Sujatha Narayanan; Meier, Rudolf; Bayless, Keith M; Zhang, Dong (2021). "Monophyletic blowflies revealed by phylogenomics". BMC Biology 19 (230): 230. doi:10.1186/s12915-021-01156-4. PMID 34706743. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Calliphoridae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=151495. 
  6. ↑ "Gentle". Oxford Dictionaries. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/gentle--2. 
  7. ↑ Yeates, D. K.; Wiegmann, B. M. (1999). "Congruence and controversy: toward a higher-level phylogeny of Diptera". Annual Review of Entomology 44: 397–428. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.44.1.397. PMID 15012378. 
  8. ↑ Sivell, Olga (2021). "Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Polleniidae, Rhiniidae)". RES Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects 10 (16): 1–208. ISBN 9781910159064. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Brundage, Adrienne (13–15 February 2008). Calliphoridae. Texas A&M University, College Station. 
  10. ↑ UniProt. "Calliphoridae". https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/7371. 
  11. ↑ Whitworth, Terry (1 November 2010). "Keys to the genera and species of blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of the West Indies and description of a new species of Lucilia Robineau-Desvoidy". Zootaxa 2663 (1): 1–35. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2663.1.1. 
  12. ↑ Anne Hastings, David Yeates & Joanna Hamilton (2004). "Anatomical Atlas of Flies". CSIRO. http://www.ces.csiro.au/biology/fly/fly.html. 
  13. ↑ "Biological Sciences: Northern Kentucky University". Nku.edu. 2013-01-14. http://www.nku.edu/~biosci/CoursesNDegree/ForensicFlyKey/families.htm. 
  14. ↑ "INSECTES15-4". Aramel.free.fr. http://aramel.free.fr/INSECTES15-4.shtml. 
  15. ↑ "diaporama image". http://www.smlc.asso.fr/smlc/dmla/entomologie/diaporama/images/08.jpg. 
  16. ↑ Goodman, Lesley J. (1964). "The landing responses of insects. II. The electrical response of the compound eye of the fly, Lucilia sericata, upon stimluation by moving objects and slow changes of light intensity". Journal of Experimental Biology 41 (2): 403–415. doi:10.1242/jeb.41.2.403. http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/41/2/403.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Welch, John B. (1993). "Predation by Spiders on Ground-Released Screwworm Flies, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in a Mountainous Area of Southern Mexico". Journal of Arachnology (Ithaca, New York: American Arachnological Society) 21 (1): 23–28. 
  18. ↑ Sanchez-Pena, Sergio R. (April 2000). "Entomopathogens from two Chihuahuan desert localities in Mexico, Projects: Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, in north-eastern Mexico". BioControl 45 (1): 63–78. doi:10.1023/A:1009915308907. 
  19. ↑ Sabrosky, Curtis W. (1999). "Family-Group Names in Diptera An annotated catalog". MYIA, the International Journal of the North American Dipterists' Society 10. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/diptera/people/FCT_pdf/FGNAMES.pdf. 
  20. ↑ Rognes, Knut; Pape, Thomas (19 April 2007). "Taxon details: Calliphoridae". Fauna Europaea version 1.1. http://www.faunaeur.org/full_results.php?id=10892. 
  21. ↑ "Diptera: B–C". Nomina – a classification of the Insects of North America as portrayed in Nomina Insecta Nearctica. 1998. http://www.nearctica.com/nomina/diptera/dipb-c.htm#anchor443206. 
  22. ↑ Kurahshi, Hiromu (28 May 2007). "109. Family CALLIPHORIDAE". Australasian/Oceanian Diptera Catalog. http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/calliphoridae.html. 
  23. ↑ Grunin, K. Ya. (1966). "New and little-known Calliphoridae (Diptera), mainly bloodsucking or subcutaneous parasites of birds" (in ru). Ent. Obozr 45: 897–903. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.8 24.9 Robineau-Desvoidy, André Jean Baptiste (1830). "Essai sur les myodaires". Mémoires presentés à l'Institut des Sciences, Lettres et Arts, par divers savants et lus dans ses assemblées: Sciences, Mathématiques et Physique 2 (2): 1–813. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/3472165#page/9/mode/1up. Retrieved 15 July 2018. 
  25. ↑ Brauer, F.; Bergenstamm, J. E. von (1893). Die Zweiflugler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien, VI. Vorarbeiten zu einer Monographie der Muscaria Schizometopa (exclusive Anthomyidae). Pars III. F. Tempsky, Wien. pp. 152. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Hall, D. G. (1948). The blowflies of North America. Thomas Say Publ. p. 4. 
  27. ↑ Hardy, G. H. (1940). "Notes on Australian Muscoidea". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 51 (2): 133–146. doi:10.5962/p.168232. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Brauer, F.; Bergenstamm, J. E. von (1891). "Die Zweiflugler des Kaiserlichen Museums zu Wien. V. Vorarbeiten zu einer Monographie der Muscaria Schizometopa (exclusive Anthomyidae)". F. Tempsky, Wien: 142. 
  29. ↑ Aldrich, J. M. (1923). "A new genus and species of fly reared from the hoof of the carabao". The Philippine Journal of Science 22: 141–142. 
  30. ↑ "Revision of the frog fly genus Caiusa Surcouf, 1920 (Diptera, Calliphoridae), with a note on the identity of Plinthomyia emimelania Rondani, 1875". zootaxa. http://mapress.com/zootaxa/2015/f/z03952p080f.pdf. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 Macquart, P. J. M. (1851). "Dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus. Suite du 4e supplement publie dans les memoires de 1849". Mémoires de la Société (Royale) des sciences, de l'agriculture et des arts à Lille 1850: 134–294. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107754#page/156/mode/1up. Retrieved 28 March 2021. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Townsend, C. H. T. (1915). "A new generic name for the screw-worm fly". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 5: 644–646. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Townsend, C. H. T. (1918). "New muscoid genera, species and synonymy (Diptera)". Insecutor Inscitiae Menstruus 6: 151–156. 
  34. ↑ Grimshaw, P. H. (1901). "Part I. Diptera". Fauna Hawaiiensis 3 (1): 1–77. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Townsend, Charles Henry Tyler (1908). "The taxonomy of the muscoidean flies, including descriptions of new genera and species". Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 51 (2): 1–138. https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/23336/SMC_51_Townsend_1908_2_1-138.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Retrieved 13 September 2021. 
  36. ↑ Townsend, Charles Haskins T. (1931). "Notes on American oestromuscoid types". Revista de Entomologia (Rio de Janeiro) 1 (2): 157–183. 
  37. ↑ Malloch, J.R. (May 1926). "LXI.— Exotic Muscaridæ ( Diptera ).—XVIII". Annals and Magazine of Natural History 17 (101): 489–510. doi:10.1080/00222932608633438. 
  38. ↑ Brauer, F. (1895). "Bemerkungen zu einigen neuen Gattungen der Muscarien und Deutung einiger Original-Exemplare" (in German). Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften 104 (1): 582–604. http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/129/1298074140.pdf. 
  39. ↑ Villeneuve, J. (1933). "Myodaires superieurs asiatiques nouveaux" (in French). Bulletin et Annales de la Société Entomologique de Belgique 73: 195–199. 
  40. ↑ Villeneuve, J. (1911). "Dipterologische Sammelreise nack Korsika. (Dipt.) [Schluss] Tachinidae". Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift 1911: 117–130. 
  41. ↑ Shannon, Raymond Corbett (1926). "Synopsis of the American Calliphoridae (Diptera)". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 28: 115–139. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16137529#page/149/mode/1up. Retrieved 5 June 2020. 
  42. ↑ Villeneuve de Janti, Joseph (1920). "À propos de la révision des Muscidae testaceae de J. Surcouf". Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France 25 (14): 223–225. doi:10.3406/bsef.1920.26657. Bibcode: 1920AnSEF..25..223V. https://www.persee.fr/doc/bsef_0037-928x_1920_num_25_14_26657. 
  43. ↑ Crosskey, R. W. (1965). "A systematic revision of the Ameniinae (Diptera: Calliphoridae)". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Entomology 16: 33–140. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.21863. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/21863. 
  44. ↑ Townsend, C H T (1917). "Indian flies of the subfamily Rhiniinae". Records of the Indian Museum 13: 185–202. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.5859. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/5859. 
  45. ↑ Silvestri, F. (1920). "Contribuzione alla conoscenza dei termitidi e termitofilidell' Africa occidentale. II. – Termitofili. Parte seconda". Boll.Lab. Portici 14: 265–319. 
  46. ↑ Hough, G. de N. (1899). "Some North American genera of the dipterous group, Calliphorinae Girschner". Entomological News 10: 62–66. 
  47. ↑ Bezzi, Mario (1927). "Some Calliphoridae (Diptera) from the South Pacific islands and Australia". Bulletin of Entomological Research 17 (3): 231–247. doi:10.1017/s0007485300019283. 
  48. ↑ Séguy, Eugène (1926). "Sur une forme nouvelle se rapportant aux "Oestridae dubiosae"". Encyclopedia Ent. (B II) 3: 1–10. 
  49. ↑ Bigot, J. M. F. (1857). "Dipteres nouveaux provenant du Chili". Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 3 (5): 277–308. 
  50. ↑ Macquart, P. J. M. (1843). "Dipteres exotiques nouveaux ou peu connus". Mem. Soc. R. Sci. Agric. Lille 2 (3): 162–460. 
  51. ↑ Malloch, J.R. (1935). "The Diptera of the Territory of New Guinea. III. Families Musicidae and Tachinidae". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 60: 74–78. 
  52. ↑ Rohdendorf, B. B. (1931). "Calliphorinen-Studien IV (Dipt.). Eine neue Calliphorinen-Gattung aus Ostsibirien". Zoologischer Anzeiger 95: 175–177. 
  53. ↑ Wulp, F. M. van der (1885). "Quelques dipteres exotiques". Bulletin & Annales de la Société Entomologique de Belgique 28: cclxxxviii–ccxcvii. 
  54. ↑ Villeneuve, J. (1927). "Myodaires superieurs nouveaux de l'Œle de Formose". Revue Zool. Bot. Afr 15: 387–397. 
  55. ↑ Tuomikoski, R. (1960). "The Ocydromiinae group of subfamilies (Diptera, Empididae)". Ann. Entomol. Fenn. 32: 282–294. 
  56. ↑ Malloch, J.R. (1924). "The recorded Calliphoridae of New Zealand (Diptera)". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 55: 638–640. 
  57. ↑ Yazdi, Ismail. "Oral mucosa myiasis caused by Oestrus Ovis". Archives of Iranian Medicine. http://www.ams.ac.ir/AIM/0253/0253194.htm. Retrieved 17 April 2008. 
  58. ↑ Sutherst, R. W.; Spradbery, J. P.; Maywald, G. F. (1989). "The potential geographical distribution of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana". Med. Vet. Entomol 3 (3): 273–280. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1989.tb00228.x. PMID 2519672. 
  59. ↑ Byrd, Jason H.. "Secondary Screwworms". Featured Creatures Jan 1998 1–2. http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/livestock/secondary_screwworm.htm. 
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  64. ↑ Peacock, Andrew (31 August 2004). "Blow fly in Sheep". Newfoundland and Labrador Agriculture. http://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/agric/animal_diseases/domestic/pdf/blowfly04.pdf. 
  65. ↑ Olsen, Alan R. (1998). "Regulatory Action Criteria for Filth and Other Extraneous Materials*1 III. Review of Flies and Foodborne Enteric Disease". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 28 (3): 199–211. doi:10.1006/rtph.1998.1271. PMID 10049791. https://zenodo.org/record/1229964. 
  66. ↑ Cook, David F; Voss, Sasha C; Finch, Jonathan T D; Rader, Romina C; Cook, James M; Spurr, Cameron J (2020-06-02). "The Role of Flies as Pollinators of Horticultural Crops: An Australian Case Study with Worldwide Relevance" (in en). Insects 11 (6): 341. doi:10.3390/insects11060341. ISSN 2075-4450. PMID 32498457. 
  67. ↑ Joel Greenberg (2004). "Many more than we know: insects". A Natural History of the Chicago Region. University of Chicago Press. pp. 291–316. ISBN 978-0-226-30649-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=OXA1VVOSUg4C&pg=PA307. 
  68. ↑ Klong-klaew, Tunwadee; Ngoen-klan, Ratchadawan; Moophayak, Kittikhun; Sukontason, Kom; Irvine, Kim; Tomberlin, Jeffery; Kurahashi, Hiromu; Chareonviriyaphap, Theeraphap et al. (December 2018). "Spatial Distribution of Forensically Significant Blow Flies in Subfamily Luciliinae (Diptera: Calliphoridae), Chiang Mai Province, Northern Thailand: Observations and Modeling Using GIS" (in en). Insects 9 (4): 181. doi:10.3390/insects9040181. PMID 30513924. 
  69. ↑ Stephen W. Bullington (24 July 2001). "Blow flies: their life cycle and where to look for the various stages". Forensic Entomology. http://www.key-net.net/users/swb/forensics/BF.htm. 

Identification

  • Fritz Konrad Ernst Zumpt Calliphorinae, in Lindner, E. Fliegen Palaearkt. Reg. 64i, 140 p. (1956)
  • Fan, C. T. Key to the common synanthropic flies of China. Peking [= Beijing]. xv + 330 p. In Chinese but really excellent illustrations. (1965).
  • Kano, R. and Shinonaga, S. Calliphoridae (Insecta: Diptera) (Fauna Japonica), Tokyo Biogeographical Society of Japan, Tokyo.( 1968). In English.
  • Lehrer, A. Z., Diptera. Familia Calliphoridae. In: Fauna R.S.R., Insecta, vol. XI,(12), Edit. R.S.R., Bucuresti, 1972, 245 p. In Romanian.
  • Rognes, K. Blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of Fennoscandia and Denmark. Fauna Entomologica Scandinavica, Volume 24. E. J. Brill/Scandinavian Science Press Ltd. Leiden.(1991).

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q28404 entry

ko:검정파리



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