Biology:Millet

From HandWiki

Millets (/ˈmɪlɪts/)[1] are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe Paniceae.

Millets are important crops in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa, especially in India, Mali, Nigeria, and Niger, with 97% of production in developing countries.[2] The crop is favoured for its productivity and short growing season under hot dry conditions.[3] The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated sorghum;[4] apart from that, pearl millet is the most commonly cultivated of the millets.[5] Finger millet, proso millet, barnyard millet, little millet, kodo millet, browntop millet and foxtail millet are other important crop species. Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".[3]

Etymology

The word millet is derived via Old French millet, millot from Latin millium, 'millet', ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *mele-, 'to crush'.[6]

Description

Characteristics

Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major cereals.[7][8]

Taxonomic history

In 1753, Carl Linnaeus described foxtail millet as Panicum italicum. Finger millet was described as Eleusine coracana by Joseph Gaertner in 1788.[9] In 1812, Palisot de Beauvois grouped several taxa into Setaria italica.[10]

The genus Pennisetum was divided by Otto Stapf in 1934 into the section penicillaria, with 32 species including all the cultivated ones, and four other sections. In 1977, J. Brunken and colleagues classed the wild P. violaceum as part of the cultivated species P. glaucum (pearl millet).[10]

Evolution

Phylogeny

The millets are closely related to sorghum and maize within the PACMAD clade of grasses,[11] and more distantly to the cereals of the BOP clade such as wheat and barley.[12]

(Part of Poaceae)
BOP clade
 

Bambusoideae (bamboos)

 
 
Pooideae
Poeae

Avena (oat), fescue, ryegrass

 
Triticeae
 

Hordeum (barley)

 
 
 

Triticum (wheat)

 
 

Secale (rye)

 
 
 
 
 

Oryza (rice)

 
 
 
PACMAD clade
 

Aristidoideae

 
 
 

Panicoideae (most millets; sorghum; maize)

 
 
 
 

Chloridoideae (finger millet; teff)

 
 

Danthonioideae

 
 
 
 

Arundinoideae

 
 

Micrairoideae

 
 
 
 
 
 

Within the Panicoideae, sorghum (great millet[4]) is in the tribe Andropogoneae, while pearl millet, proso, foxtail, fonio, little millet, sawa, Japanese barnyard millet and kodo are in the tribe Paniceae.[13][14] Within the Chloridoideae, finger millet is in the tribe Cynodonteae, while teff is in the tribe Eragrostideae.[13]

Taxonomy

The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family Poaceae (the grasses), but they belong to different tribes and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:[15]

Eragrostideae tribe in the subfamily Chloridoideae:

Paniceae tribe in the subfamily Panicoideae:

  • Genus Panicum:
  • Cenchrus americanus: Pearl millet
Closeup picture of pearl millet
Pearl millet (Cenchrus americanus)
Closeup picture of kodo millet
Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)

Andropogoneae tribe, also in the subfamily Panicoideae:

Domestication and spread

The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,[21] and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.[22] Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of Europe by 5000 BC.[22]

Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the Late Bronze Age in Macedonia and northern Greece.[23] Hesiod states that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."[24][25] Millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by Theophrastus in his Enquiry into Plants.[26]

East Asia

Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) and foxtail millet (Setaria italica) were important crops beginning in the Early Neolithic of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at Cishan, where proso millet husk phytoliths and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in storage pits along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.[21] Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.[21] Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the Lajia archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.[27][28] During the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, a majority of the cereals consumed during the Zhengluo region (modern Henan) of China were foxtail millet and proso millet.[29] Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to Shennong, a legendary emperor of China, and Hou Ji, whose name means Lord Millet.[30]

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the Korean Peninsula dating to the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (around 3500–2000 BC).[31][32] Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the Mumun pottery period (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea.[32] Millets and their wild ancestors, such as barnyard grass and panic grass, were also cultivated in Japan during the Jōmon period sometime after 4000 BC.[33][31]

Indian subcontinent

Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) is believed to have been domesticated around 3000 BC in the Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) around 3700 BC, also in the Indian subcontinent.[34][35] Pearl millet had arrived in the Indian subcontinent by 2000 BC to 1700 BC.[36] Browntop millet (Urochloa ramosa) was likely domesticated in the Deccan near the beginning of the third millennium BCE and spread throughout India, though was later superseded by other millets.[19] Cultivation of Finger millet had spread to South India by 1800 BC.[37] Various millets have been mentioned in some of the Yajurveda texts, identifying foxtail millet (priyaṅgu), Barnyard millet (aṇu) and black finger millet (śyāmāka), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India.[38]

Africa

Finger millet is native to the highlands of East Africa and was domesticated before the third millennium BC.[37] Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa from Pennisetum violaceum.[39] Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds at Birimi in northern Ghana (1740 cal BC) and Dhar Tichitt in Mauritania (1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley in Mali (2500 to 2000 cal BC).[39][36] Studies of isozymes suggest domestication took place north east of the Senegal River in the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC.[39][36]

Europe

Broomcorn or proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) came to Europe from East Asia as early as the 17th century BC in Vinogradnyi Sad, Ukraine (modern Mykolaiv Oblast).[40][41] At around 1500 BC it reached Italy and southeastern Europe; around 1400 BC it came to central Europe, and from 1200 BC, it arrived in northern Germany.[42][40]

Agriculture

Cultivation

Pearl millet is one of the two major dryland crops (alongside sorghum[43]) in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.[44] Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops.[44]

Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved varieties of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in Burkina Faso, doubled yields. This variety was selected for trials in Zimbabwe. From there it was taken to Namibia, where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-Sahelian country where pearl millet—locally known as mahangu—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to Chad. The variety has significantly enhanced yields in Mauritania and Benin.[45]

Upon request by the Indian Government in 2018, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations declared 2023 as International Year of Millets.[46]

Pests and diseases

Millets are subject to damage by many insect pests, including corn borers, stemborers, the caterpillars of numerous moths in the families Erebidae and Noctuidae, the millet midge, many species of flies in the Muscidae, as well as Hemipteran bugs of many families including aphids, and species of thrips, beetles, and grasshoppers.[47]

Among the many diseases of millets are serious fungal infections such as anthracnose, blast, charcoal rot, downy mildew, ergot, grain mould, rust, and sheath rot. Bacterial diseases are generally less serious; they include bacterial leaf spot, leaf stripe and leaf streak. Viral diseases are again generally less serious, except for a few diseases such as maize stripe virus, maize mosaic virus, sorghum red stripe virus, and maize streak virus.[48]

Production

Template:Infobox agricultural production

In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 million tonnes. India is the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually – some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging from Niger (at 3.7 million tonnes) to Chad (0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception is China, number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes.[49]

  • A woman threshing pearl millet in Northern Ghana
    A woman threshing pearl millet in Northern Ghana
  • Proso millet with bacterial stripe disease
    Proso millet with bacterial stripe disease
  • Production of millet (2008) showing major producing regions of the world
    Production of millet (2008) showing major producing regions of the world

Research

Research on millets is carried out by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)[50][51][52] and ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research[53] in Telangana, India, and by the United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service at Tifton, Georgia, United States.[54]

Uses

As food and drink

Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.[55] Millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as China, India, Burma and North Korea.[16]

Millet is a staple in the Sahel region of Africa, accounting for about a large portion of total cereal food consumption in Burkina Faso, Chad and the Gambia.[16] It can be ground and mixed with milk to make fura and brukina.[56][57] Countries in Africa where millets are a major food source include Niger and Namibia where it forms over 65% of the cereals eaten; it is significant, too, in Mali, Senegal, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda. Millet is important in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa.[16] Fermented beverages made with millet include cipumu in Tanzania, bushera in Uganda, mangisi in Zimbabwe, and marrisa in Sudan.[58]

In Ukraine, millet was historically a common ingredient in the diet of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, in the form of a porridge called kulish. This dish, primarily made with millet, served with stewed vegetables and meat, cooked in a cauldron, remains a part of modern Ukrainian cuisine.[59] In Germany, it is eaten sweet, for example with milk and berries for breakfast.[60] In Russia, millet porridge [ru; ru; пшённая каша] also remains common and is promoted for its health benefits.[61] Millet porridge made with pumpkin is particularly common. In the Lipetsk Oblast, ritual and daily meals from millet include chichi (Russian: чичи), which are millet fritters.[62]

Millet is commonly eaten in India and usually incorporated into dishes as a flour, although consumption is declining.[63] In Karnataka, India, finger millet is made into ragi rotti flatbread[64] and ragi mudde dough lumps.[65] In the Himalayas, including in Nepal, Sikkim, and Darjeeling, millet is fermented into alcoholic beverages such as tongba and raksi.[66][67] Millet is the main ingredient in bánh đa kê, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and mung bean topped with sliced dried coconut meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake.[68]

  • Ragi rotti, finger millet flatbread, Karnataka, India
    Ragi rotti, finger millet flatbread, Karnataka, India
  • Ragi mudde, dough lumps of finger millet
    Ragi mudde, dough lumps of finger millet
  • Awaokoshi, candied millet puffs, are a specialty of Osaka, Japan.
    Awaokoshi, candied millet puffs, are a specialty of Osaka, Japan.
  • Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in Hanoi, Vietnam
    Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in Hanoi, Vietnam
  • Tongba, a millet-based alcoholic brew from Nepal and Sikkim
    Tongba, a millet-based alcoholic brew from Nepal and Sikkim
  • Brukutu, a beer made using Guinea corn and millet in Nigeria
    Brukutu, a beer made using Guinea corn and millet in Nigeria

As forage

Millet is sometimes used as a forage crop, to produce animal feed. Compared to forage sorghum, animals including lambs gain weight faster on millet, and it has better hay or silage potential, although it produces less dry matter.[69] Millet does not contain toxic prussic acid, sometimes found in sorghum.[70] The rapid growth of millet allows flexibility in its use as a grazing crop. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present to make use of it. It is ideally suited to irrigation where livestock finishing is required.[69][70][71]

Nutrition

Millets have nutritional profiles comparable to conventional cereals such as wheat and rice. They are also high in protein, fiber, calcium, iron, and zinc.[58][72]

Millet contains antinutrients, which interfere with the digestion and utilization of nutrients. Millet-heavy diets may contribute to endemic goitre in rural Africa and Asia. Antinutrients can be reduced by processing techniques such as malting, milling, cooking, and fermentation.[58][73]

People who need a gluten-free diet due to gluten-related disorders such as coeliac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity and wheat allergy,[74][75][76] can replace gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.[77] There remains a risk of contamination with gluten-containing cereals.[78][79]

Nutrient content of raw millets compared to other grains (per 100g)[80]
Crop Protein
(g)		 Fibre
(g)		 Minerals
(g)		 Iron
(mg)		 Calcium
(mg)
Sorghum 10 4 1.6 2.6 54
Pearl millet 10.6 1.3 2.3 16.9 38
Finger millet 7.3 3.6 2.7 3.9 344
Foxtail millet 12.3 8 3.3 2.8 31
Proso millet 12.5 2.2 1.9 0.8 14
Kodo millet 8.3 9 2.6 0.5 27
Little millet 7.7 7.6 1.5 9.3 17
Barnyard millet 11.2 10.1 4.4 15.2 11
Brown top millet 11.5 12.5 4.2 0.65 0.01
Quinoa 14.1 7 * 4.6 47
Teff 13 8 0.85 7.6 180
Fonio 11 11.3 5.31 84.8 18
Rice 6.8 0.2 0.6 0.7 10
Wheat 11.8 1.2 1.5 5.3 41

See also

  • List of ancient dishes and foods

References

  1. ↑ "Definition of millet". Oxford University. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/millet. 
  2. ↑ McDonough, Cassandrea M.; Rooney, Lloyd W.; Serna-Saldivar, Sergio O. (2000). "The Millets". Food Science and Technology: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology (CRC Press) 99: 177–210. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Cherfas, Jeremy (23 December 2015). "Millet: How A Trendy Ancient Grain Turned Nomads Into Farmers". https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/12/23/460559052/millet-how-a-trendy-ancient-grain-turned-nomads-into-farmers. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 (xls) BSBI List 2007, Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland, https://bsbi.org/download/3542/, retrieved 14 December 2021 
  5. ↑ "Annex II: Relative importance of millet species, 1992–94". The World Sorghum and Millet Economies: Facts, Trends and Outlook. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1996. ISBN 978-92-5-103861-1. http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0l.htm. 
  6. ↑ "millet (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/word/millet. 
  7. ↑ Fahad, Shah; Bajwa, Ali A.; Nazir, Usman; Anjum, Shakeel A.; Farooq, Ayesha et al. (2017-06-29). "Crop Production under Drought and Heat Stress: Plant Responses and Management Options". Frontiers in Plant Science 8. doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.01147. PMID 28706531. Bibcode: 2017FrPS....8.1147F. 
  8. ↑ Patan, Shaik Sha Valli Khan; Vallepu, Suneetha; Shaik, Khader Basha; Shaik, Naseem; Adi Reddy, Nanja Reddy Yellodu; Terry, Randall G.; Sergeant, Kjell; Hausman, Jean François (2024). "Drought resistance strategies in minor millets: a review". Planta 260 (1). doi:10.1007/s00425-024-04427-w. ISSN 0032-0935. PMID 38879859. Bibcode: 2024Plant.260...29P. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00425-024-04427-w. 
  9. ↑ "Eleusine coracana (finger millet)". CABI. 2019. doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.20674. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1079/cabicompendium.20674. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 House, L. R. (1995). "Sorghum and millets: History, taxonomy, and distribution". in Dendy, David A.V.. Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology. St. Paul, Minnesota: American Association of Cereal Chemists. pp. 1–9. https://oar.icrisat.org/5486/1/Sorghum_&_Millets_Chemistry_and_Technology_1-9.pdf. 
  11. ↑ Grass Phylogeny Working Group II (2012). "New grass phylogeny resolves deep evolutionary relationships and discovers C4 origins". New Phytologist 193 (2): 304–312. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03972.x. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 22115274. Bibcode: 2012NewPh.193..304..  open access
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  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Soreng, Robert J.; Peterson, Paul M.; Zuloaga, Fernando O.; Romaschenko, Konstantin; Clark, Lynn G. et al. (2022). "A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) III: An update". Journal of Systematics and Evolution 60 (3): 476–521. doi:10.1111/jse.12847. Bibcode: 2022JSyEv..60..476S. 
  14. ↑ Morrone, Osvaldo; Aagesen, Lone; Scataglini, Maria A.; Salariato, Diego L.; Denham, Silvia S. et al. (2012). "Phylogeny of the Paniceae (Poaceae: Panicoideae): integrating plastid DNA sequences and morphology into a new classification". Cladistics 28 (4): 333–356. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00384.x. PMID 34836451. 
  15. ↑ Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Attributes (2nd ed.). Elsevier. 2019. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-12-811527-5. https://shop.elsevier.com/books/sorghum-and-millets/taylor/978-0-12-811527-5. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 "Sorghum and millet in human nutrition". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995. http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm. 
  17. ↑ panic (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=panic  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) from classical Latin pānicum (or pānīcum) Italian millet.
  18. ↑ "Browntop Millet". United States Department of Agriculture. https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_urra.pdf. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Kingwell-Banham, Eleanor; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2014). "Brown Top Millet: Origins and Development". in Smith, Claire. Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology. New York, NY: Springer New York. pp. 1021–1024. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2318. ISBN 978-1-4419-0426-3. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2318. Retrieved 2025-01-15. 
  20. ↑ Takei, Emiko (October 2013). Millet Culture and Indigenous Cuisine in Taiwan. The 2013 International Conference on Chinese Food Culture, Kunming, Yunnan, China.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Lu, H.; Zhang, J.; Liu, K. B.; Wu, N.; Li, Y. et al. (2009). "Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (18): 7367–7372. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900158106. PMID 19383791. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..106.7367L. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Lawler, A. (2009). "Bridging East and West: Millet on the move". Science 325 (5943): 942–943. doi:10.1126/science.325_940. PMID 19696328. 
  23. ↑ Nesbitt, Mark; Summers, Geoffrey (January 1988). "Some Recent Discoveries of Millet (Panicum miliaceum L. and Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) at Excavations in Turkey and Iran". Anatolian Studies 38 (38): 85–97. doi:10.2307/3642844. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Records-of-millet-from-the-Ancient-Near-East-and-Greece_tbl1_234002850. Retrieved 25 February 2019. 
  24. ↑ Hesiod (September 2013). Hesiod, the Poems and Fragments, Done Into English Prose. Theclassics Us. pp. fragments S396–423. ISBN 978-1-230-26344-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=V9uungEACAAJ. 
  25. ↑ "The Poems and Fragments | Online Library of Liberty". https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1091#Hesiod_0606_290. 
  26. ↑ Theophrastus; Arthur Hort (1916). Enquiry into plants and minor works on odours and weather signs, with an English translation by Sir Arthur Hort, bart. https://archive.org/details/enquiryintoplant01theouoft/page/78. 
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  28. ↑ Lu, Houyuan; Yang, Xiaoyan; Ye, Maolin; Liu, Kam-Biu; Xia, Zhengkai et al. (12 October 2005). "Millet noodles in Late Neolithic China". Nature 437 (7061): 967–968. doi:10.1038/437967a. PMID 16222289. 
  29. ↑ An, Jingping; Kirleis, Wiebke; Jin, Guiyun (2019-11-01). "Changing of crop species and agricultural practices from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age in the Zhengluo region, China". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 11 (11): 6273–6286. doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00915-3. Bibcode: 2019ArAnS..11.6273A. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-019-00915-3. 
  30. ↑ Yang, Lihui (2005). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 70, 131–135, 198. ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Crawford, Gary W. (1992). "Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia". The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 117–132. ISBN 978-0-87474-990-8. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Crawford, Gary W.; Lee, Gyoung-Ah (2003). "Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula". Antiquity 77 (295): 87–95. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00061378. 
  33. ↑ Crawford, Gary W. (1983). Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula. Ann Arbor: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-932206-95-4. 
  34. ↑ Weber, Steven A. (April 1998). "Out of Africa: The Initial Impact of Millets in South Asia". Current Anthropology 39 (2): 267–274. doi:10.1086/204725. Bibcode: 1998CurrA..39..267W. 
  35. ↑ Pokharia, Anil K.; Kharakwal, Jeewan Singh; Srivastava, Alka (February 2014). "Archaeobotanical evidence of millets in the Indian subcontinent with some observations on their role in the Indus civilization". Journal of Archaeological Science 42: 442–455. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.11.029. Bibcode: 2014JArSc..42..442P. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Manning, Katie; Pelling, Ruth; Higham, Tom; Schwenniger, Jean-Luc; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2011). "4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternatives are cereal domestication pathway". Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2): 312–322. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007. Bibcode: 2011JArSc..38..312M. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Engels, J. M. M.; Hawkes, J. G.; Hawkes, John Gregory; Worede, M. (1991). Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38456-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC&q=finger+millet+domesticated+ethiopia&pg=PA162. 
  38. ↑ Roy, Mira (2009). "Agriculture in the Vedic Period". Indian Journal of History of Science 44 (4): 497–520. https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 D'Andrea, A. C.; Casey, J. (2002). "Pearl Millet and Kintampo Subsistence". The African Archaeological Review 19 (3): 147–173. doi:10.1023/A:1016518919072. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1016518919072. Retrieved 18 May 2024. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Wiebke Kirleis, ed (2022-04-15). Millet and What Else?. The Wider Context of the Adoption of Millet Cultivation in Europe. ISBN 978-94-6427-015-0. https://www.sidestone.com/books/millet-and-what-else. 
  41. ↑ Dal Corso, Marta; Pashkevych, Galyna; Filipović, Dragana; Liu, Xinyi; Motuzaite Matuzeviciute, Giedre; Stobbe, Astrid; Shatilo, Ludmila; Videiko, Mihail et al. (2022-12-01). "Between Cereal Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: Millet in the Early Economy of the North Pontic Region". Journal of World Prehistory 35 (3): 321–374. doi:10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1. 
  42. ↑ "Millet in the Bronze Age: A Superfood conquers the World". 2025-01-21. https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/details/news/081-hirse-superfood. 
  43. ↑ Masaka, Johnson; Chohunoita, Collen; Mupfiga, Elvis (1 January 2021). "Soil moisture, dryland sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L.) growth and grain yield responses to in-field rain water harvesting tillage methods". Cogent Food & Agriculture 7 (1). doi:10.1080/23311932.2021.1925004. ISSN 2331-1932. Bibcode: 2021CogFA...725004M. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Baltensperger, David D. (2002). "Progress with Proso, Pearl and Other Millets". Trends in New Crops and New Uses. Alexandria, Virginia: ASHS Press. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf. 
  45. ↑ ICRISAT. "A New Generation of Pearl Millet on the Horizon". The World Bank. http://www.worldbank.org/html/cgiar/newsletter/Oct96/6millet.html. 
  46. ↑ "International Year of Millets 2023 - IYM 2023". https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/international-year-of-millets-unleashing-the-potential-of-millets-for-the-well-being-of-people-and-the-environment. 
  47. ↑ Kalaisekar, A. (2017). Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management. London: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-12-804243-4. OCLC 967265246. 
  48. ↑ Das, I.K.; Nagaraja, A.; Tonapi, Vilas A. (March 2016). "Diseases of millets". Indian Farming 12: 41–45. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361164140. 
  49. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named FAOSTAT2022
  50. ↑ "ICRISAT overview". https://www.icrisat.org/icrisat-strategic-plan/. 
  51. ↑ "Pearl Millet". http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Pearl%20Millet/178. 
  52. ↑ "Small Millets". http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Small%20millets/187. 
  53. ↑ "Indian Institute of Millets Research". https://millets.res.in/. 
  54. ↑ Hanna, W.; Wilson, J.. "Pearl Millet Hybrids for Grain". https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/tifton-ga/crop-genetics-and-breeding-research/docs/pearl-millet-hybrids-for-grain/. 
  55. ↑ "Millet Industry Statistics in Africa | SME Blue Pages". https://smebluepages.com/millet-industry-statistics-in-africa/. 
  56. ↑ "Relish The Fulani's fura". 2020-09-11. https://tribuneonlineng.com/relish-the-fulanis-fura/. 
  57. ↑ "Burkina: Latest millet smoothie in town". https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/Burkina-Latest-millet-smoothie-in-town-278294. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 Hassan, Z. M.; Sebola, N. A.; Mabelebele, M. (2021-03-29). "The nutritional use of millet grain for food and feed: a review" (in en). Agriculture & Food Security 10 (1): 16. doi:10.1186/s40066-020-00282-6. ISSN 2048-7010. PMID 33815778. Bibcode: 2021AgFS...10...16H. 
  59. ↑ "Kulish". https://ukrainefood.info/recipes/soups/28-kulish. 
  60. ↑ "Süßer Hirsebrei mit Milch und Beeren" (in de). https://eat.de/rezept/suesser-hirsebrei/. 
  61. ↑ "Пшенная каша (4 секрета приготовления рассыпчатой каши) — Пошаговый рецепт приготовления с фото 2025 | Простые и вкусные рецепты в домашних условиях". 14 September 2009. https://www.edimdoma.ru/retsepty/42638-pshennaya-kasha-4-sekreta-prigotovleniya-rassypchatoy-kashi. 
  62. ↑ "Рязанские чичи, сыроеги и калинники" (in ru). 4 April 2019. https://rv-ryazan.ru/ryazanskie-chichi-syroegi-i-kalinniki/. 
  63. ↑ Basavaraj, G.; Rao, P. P.; Bhagavatula, S.; Ahmed, W. (2010). "Availability and utilization of pearl millet in India" (in en). SAT eJournal 8. http://ejournal.icrisat.org/Volume8/IMPI/Availability_and_utilization.pdf. 
  64. ↑ "Ragi Roti Recipe". Times of India. 4 December 2018. https://recipes.timesofindia.com/recipes/ragi-roti/rs57534900.cms. 
  65. ↑ "Ragi Sangati". The Hindu. 2008-06-21. http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article1419117.ece. 
  66. ↑ Easen, Nick (2004-03-01). "Mountain High". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,596307,00.html. 
  67. ↑ Kumar, Ashwani; Tomer, Vidisha; Kaur, Amarjeet; Kumar, Vikas; Gupta, Kritika (2018-04-27). "Millets: a solution to agrarian and nutritional challenges". Agriculture & Food Security 7 (1): 31. doi:10.1186/s40066-018-0183-3. Bibcode: 2018AgFS....7...31K. 
  68. ↑ "Bánh đa kê - món quà vặt của người Hà Nội" (in vi). https://dulich.vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/dau-chan/ba-nh-da-ke-mo-n-qua-va-t-cu-a-nguo-i-ha-no-i-3467611.html. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Collett, Ian J.. "Forage Sorghum and Millet". District Agronomist, Tamworth. NSW Department of Primary Industries. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/146616/forage-sorghum-and-millet.pdf. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Robson, Sarah. "Dr". primefact 417, Prussic Acid Poisoning in Livestock. NSW Department of Primary Industries. http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111190/prussic-acid-poisoning-in-livestock.pdf. 
  71. ↑ Lonewood Trust. "Shirohie Millet Growing Guide". http://aussiesapphire.com/documents/SHIROHIE_MILLET_GROWING_GUIDE.pdf. 
  72. ↑ Saleh, Ahmed S.M.; Zhang, Qing; Chen, Jing; Shen, Qun (2013). "Millet Grains: Nutritional Quality, Processing, and Potential Health Benefits" (in en). Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 12 (3): 281–295. doi:10.1111/1541-4337.12012. ISSN 1541-4337. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1541-4337.12012. 
  73. ↑ Boncompagni, Eleonora; Orozco-Arroyo, Gregorio; Cominelli, Eleonora; Gangashetty, Prakash Irappa; Grando, Stefania; Zu, Theophilus Tenutse Kwaku; Daminati, Maria Gloria; Nielsen, Erik et al. (2018-06-01). "Antinutritional factors in pearl millet grains: Phytate and goitrogens content variability and molecular characterization of genes involved in their pathways" (in en). PLOS ONE 13 (6): e0198394. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0198394. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 29856884. Bibcode: 2018PLoSO..1398394B. 
  74. ↑ Ludvigsson, Jonas F; Leffler, Daniel A; Bai, Julio C; Biagi, Federico; Fasano, Alessio et al. (2013). "The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms". Gut 62 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346. PMID 22345659. PMC 3440559. https://gut.bmj.com/content/gutjnl/62/1/43.full.pdf. Retrieved 3 January 2025. 
  75. ↑ Mulder, Chris J.J.; van Wanrooij, R.L.J.; Bakker, S.F.; Wierdsma, N.; Bouma, G. (2013). "Gluten-Free Diet in Gluten-Related Disorders". Digestive Diseases 31 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1159/000347180. PMID 23797124. 
  76. ↑ Volta, Umberto; Caio, Giacomo; De Giorgio, Roberto; Henriksen, Christine; Skodje, Gry; Lundin, Knut E. (2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: A work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders". Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology 29 (3): 477–491. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006. PMID 26060112. 
  77. ↑ Rai, Sweta; Kaur, Amarjeet; Singh, Baljit (2014). "Quality characteristics of gluten free cookies prepared from different flour combinations". Journal of Food Science and Technology 51 (4): 785–789. doi:10.1007/s13197-011-0547-1. PMID 24741176. 
  78. ↑ Saturni, Letizia; Ferretti, Gianna; Bacchetti, Tiziana (14 January 2010). "The Gluten-Free Diet: Safety and Nutritional Quality". Nutrients 2 (1): 16–34. doi:10.3390/nu2010016. ISSN 2072-6643. PMID 22253989. 
  79. ↑ Koerner, Terence B.; Cleroux, Chantal; Poirier, Christine; Cantin, Isabelle; La Vieille, Sébastien; Hayward, Stephen; Dubois, Sheila (2013). "Gluten contamination of naturally gluten-free flours and starches used by Canadians with celiac disease". Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 30 (12): 2017–2021. doi:10.1080/19440049.2013.840744. PMID 24124879. 
  80. ↑ Millets 2009. India: National Forum for Policy Dialogues. p. 4. https://milletindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/II_National_Consulate.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2021. 

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