Biology:Rhipicephalus

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Rhipicephalus is a genus of hard ticks in the family Ixodidae, consisting of about 90 species.[1] While many species are native to tropical Africa, the genus is cosmopolitan, being found across the world.[2] Several species are vectors of significant human and animal pathogens.

Morphology

Rhipicephalus ticks are commonly called 'brown ticks' as they are mostly brown in colour.[3] Most adult ticks in this genus do not have colour patterns on their scutum (inornate).[3] Many taxa are very similar, without clear distinguishing features. Identification is often further frustrated by intraspecies variation.[4][3] While males are reliably distinct, instar and female specimens are sometimes impossible to identify due to the lack of differential morphological features.[4][5][3]

Disease potential

Rhipicephalus parasitism is of significant economic, medical, and veterinary importance. Many species are vectors of pathogens of humans and animals, including causing East Coast fever, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, rickettsiosis,[2] Boutonneuse fever, Lyme disease, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, NSDV and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever.[6][7] In addition to the infectious agents spread by ticks, tick bites can lead to allergic and toxic reactions.[8][9]

Some species can cause tick paralysis by injecting a neurotoxin with their bite, such as Rhipicephalus evertsi and Rhipicephalus warburtoni.[10]

Sex pheromone studies

A number of Rhipicephalus spp. females produce phenol and p-cresol after being fed for six days. These compounds may act as sex pheromones since these compounds were shown to be the sex pheromone of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus.[11]

Etymology

The name Rhipicephalus is derived from the Greek word rhiphis, meaning "fan-like", and κεφαλή, kephalē, meaning "head". The two terms are related to the hexagonal basis capituli of Rhipicephalus.

Species

As of 2025, the genus contains 90 recognised species:[12]

  • Rhipicephalus afranicus Bakkes, 2020[13]
  • Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus Say, 1821
  • Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Neumann 1901 – brown ear tick
  • Rhipicephalus aquatilis Walker, Keirans & Pegram, 1993
  • Rhipicephalus armatus Pocock, 1900
  • Rhipicephalus arnoldi Theiler & Zumpt, 1949
  • Rhipicephalus aurantiacus Neumann, 1907[lower-alpha 1]
  • Rhipicephalus australis Fuller, 1899
  • Rhipicephalus bequaerti Zumpt, 1949
  • Rhipicephalus bergeoni Morel & Balis, 1976
  • Rhipicephalus boueti Morel, 1957
  • Rhipicephalus bursa Canestrini & Fanzago, 1878
  • Rhipicephalus camicasi Morel, Mouchet & Rodhain, 1976
  • Rhipicephalus capensis Koch, 1844
  • Rhipicephalus carnivoralis Walker, 1966
  • Rhipicephalus cliffordi Morel, 1965 [lower-alpha 2]
  • Rhipicephalus complanatus Neumann, 1911
  • Rhipicephalus compositus Neumann, 1897
  • Rhipicephalus congolensis Apanaskevich, Horak & Mulumba-Mfumu, 2013[14]
  • Rhipicephalus cuspidatus Neumann, 1906
  • Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus Koch, 1844
  • Rhipicephalus deltoideus Neumann, 1910
  • Rhipicephalus distinctus Bedford 1932
  • Rhipicephalus duttoni Neumann, 1907
  • Rhipicephalus dux Dönitz, 1910
  • Rhipicephalus evertsi Neumann, 1897
  • Rhipicephalus exophthalmos Keirans & Walker 1993
  • Rhipicephalus follis Dönitz, 1910
  • Rhipicephalus fulvus Neumann, 1913
  • Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) geigyi Aeschlimann & Morel, 1965
  • Rhipicephalus gertrudae Feldman-Muhsam, 1960
  • Rhipicephalus glabroscutatus Du Toit, 1941
  • Rhipicephalus guilhoni Morel & Vassiliades, 1963
  • Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides Supino, 1897
  • Rhipicephalus hibericus Millán, Rodriguez-Pastor & Estrada-Peña, 2024[15][lower-alpha 3]
  • Rhipicephalus humeralis Rondelli, 1926 [lower-alpha 4]
  • Rhipicephalus hurti Wilson, 1954 [lower-alpha 5]
  • Rhipicephalus interventus Walker, Pegram & Keirans, 1995
  • Rhipicephalus jeanneli Neumann 1913
  • Rhipicephalus kochi Dönitz, 1905
  • Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) kohlsi Hoogstraal & Kaiser, 1960
  • Rhipicephalus leporis Pomerantsev, 1946
  • Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826)[16]
  • Rhipicephalus longiceps Warburton 1912
  • Rhipicephalus longicoxatus Neumann, 1905
  • Rhipicephalus longus Neumann, 1907
  • Rhipicephalus lounsburyi Walker, 1990
  • Rhipicephalus lunulatus Neumann 1907
  • Rhipicephalus maculatus Neumann, 1901
  • Rhipicephalus masseyi Nuttall & Warburton 1908
  • Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Canestrini, 1888
  • Rhipicephalus moucheti Morel, 1965
  • Rhipicephalus muehlensi Zumpt, 1943
  • Rhipicephalus muhsamae Morel & Vassiliades, 1965
  • Rhipicephalus neumanni Walker, 1990
  • Rhipicephalus nitens Neumann, 1904
  • Rhipicephalus oculatus Neumann 1901
  • Rhipicephalus oreotragi Walker & Horak, 2000
  • Rhipicephalus pilans Schulze, 1935
  • Rhipicephalus planus Neumann, 1907
  • Rhipicephalus praetextatus Gerstäcker, 1873
  • Rhipicephalus pravus Dönitz, 1910
  • Rhipicephalus pseudolongus Santos Dias, 1953
  • Rhipicephalus pulchellus Gerstäcker, 1873
  • Rhipicephalus pumilio Schulze, 1935
  • Rhipicephalus punctatus Warburton 1912
  • Rhipicephalus pusillus Gil Collado, 1936
  • Rhipicephalus ramachandrai Dhanda, 1966
  • Rhipicephalus rossicus Yakimov & Kol-Yakimova, 1911
  • Rhipicephalus rutilus Koch, 1844[17]
  • Rhipicephalus sanguineus Latreille, 1806 – brown dog tick
  • Rhipicephalus scalpturatus Santos Dias, 1959
  • Rhipicephalus schulzei Olenev 1929
  • Rhipicephalus sculptus Warburton 1912
  • Rhipicephalus secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952[18]
  • Rhipicephalus senegalensis Koch, 1844
  • Rhipicephalus serranoi Santos Dias 1950
  • Rhipicephalus simpsoni Nuttall 1910
  • Rhipicephalus simus Koch, 1844
  • Rhipicephalus sulcatus Neumann, 1908
  • Rhipicephalus supertritus Neumann, 1907
  • Rhipicephalus tetracornus Kitaoka & Suzuki, 1983[19][20]: 321 
  • Rhipicephalus theileri Bedford & Hewitt, 1925
  • Rhipicephalus tricuspis Dönitz, 1906
  • Rhipicephalus turanicus Pomerantsev, 1936
  • Rhipicephalus walkerae Horak, Apanaskevich and Kariuki, 2013
  • Rhipicephalus warburtoni Walker & Horak, 2000
  • Rhipicephalus zambeziensis Walker, Norval & Corwin, 1981
  • Rhipicephalus ziemanni Neumann, 1904
  • Rhipicephalus zumpti Santos Dias, 1950

Unrecognised

Rhipicephalus sanguineus species complex

Rhipicephalus includes a clade centred around the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. The taxonomy is currently in flux as phylogenies are developed. The species complex contains 16 known species-level lineages, but these often do not map singularly or wholly onto known species. Some species that are prima facie in the complex are yet to be sequenced:[21][22]

  • R. afranicus Bakkes, 2020 - 'Afrotropical lineage'
  • R. camicasi Morel, Mouchet & Rodhain, 1976
  • R. guilhoni Morel & Vassiliades, 1963
  • R. leporis Pomerantsev, 1946 [lower-alpha 7]
  • R. linnaei Audouin, 1826 - 'tropical lineage'
  • R. moucheti Morel, 1965 [lower-alpha 8]
  • R. pumilio Schulze, 1935
  • R. pusillus Gil Collado, 1936
  • R. rossicus Yakimov & Kol-Yakimova, 1911
  • R. rutilus Koch, 1844 - 'southeastern European lineage'
  • R. sanguineus sensu stricto Latreille, 1806
  • R. schulzei Olenev 1929 [lower-alpha 9]
  • R. secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952
  • R. sulcatus Neumann, 1908
  • R. turanicus Pomerantsev, 1936

Suspect

Subgenus Boophilus

Boophilus was once considered a separate genus, but studies in the early 2000s resulted in Boophilus being made a subgenus of Rhipicephalus.[23] Although Boophilus has been included in the Rhipicephalus genus, their morphology is different from the typical Rhipicephalus species.[4][5]

Notes

  1. ↑ Provisionally valid; possibly a synonym of R. ziemanni
  2. ↑ Treated as a synonym of R. pseudolongus in Walker et al. (2000)
  3. ↑ R. hibericus is suspect. Millán et al. (2024) described R. hibericus from ticks, relying primarily on reproductive isolation experiments, but used specimens (Zaragoza, Spain) that were not from the type locality (Montpellier, France). Kelava et al. (2025) and Dantas-Torres (2024) both found that the species was not distinct, genetically, from R. sanguineus s.s.
  4. ↑ Females and instars are very similar to R. pulchellus
  5. ↑ Highly similar to R. jeanneli
  6. ↑ Invalid as a nomen nudum as per Guglielmone et al. (2010)
  7. ↑ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  8. ↑ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  9. ↑ This species has not been confirmed to cluster, genetically, within the complex.
  10. ↑ Although R. burgeoni is traditionally included in the species complex, it has not been able to be resolved within the group. Dantas‑Torres et al (2024) considers it separate.
  11. ↑ Although Millán et al (2024) describe the species with differential morphology and reproductive isolation, Kelava et al (2025) found the species clusters with the R. sanguineus s.s. clade with a pairwise genetic difference of less than 0.5% Dantas-Torres, Sousa-Paula & Otranto (2024) report similar findings. R. hibericus is likely a synonym of R. sanguineus sensu stricto.

References

  1. ↑ Dantas-Torres, Filipe; de Sousa-Paula, Lucas C.; Otranto, Domenico (2024-12-27). "The Rhipicephalus sanguineus group: updated list of species, geographical distribution, and vector competence". Parasites & Vectors 17 (1): 540. doi:10.1186/s13071-024-06572-3. ISSN 1756-3305. PMID 39731169. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Olwoch, J. M., et al. (2007). Climate change and the genus Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodidae) in Africa. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 74(1), 45-72.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Walker, J.B., Keirans, J.E. & Horak, I.G. (2000). The Genus Rhipicephalus (Acari, Ixodidae): A Guide to the Brown Ticks of the World.. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48008-6. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Beati, L. and J. E. Keirans. (2001). Analysis of the systematic relationships among ticks of the genera Rhipicephalus and Boophilus (Acari: Ixodidae) based on mitochondrial 12S ribosomal DNA gene sequences and morphological characters. The Journal of Parasitology 87(1), 32.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Horak, Ivan G.; Heyne, Heloise; Williams, Roy; Gallivan, G. James; Spickett, Arthur M.; Bezuidenhout, J. Dürr; Estrada-Peña, Agustín (2018) (in en). The Ixodid Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) of Southern Africa. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70642-9. ISBN 978-3-319-70640-5. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-70642-9. 
  6. ↑ Arnaudov, Atanas D.; Arnaudov, Dimo Y. (January 1, 2017). "Ixodid Ticks on Domestic Ruminants: an Investigation in the Valley of Maritsa River in Plovdiv Region, Bulgaria". Acta Zoologica Bulgarica (Suppl. 8): 223. ISSN 0324-0770. OCLC 7091676742. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318701947. 
  7. ↑ Rhipicephalus. Tick Identification Key. University of Lincoln.
  8. ↑ Ahmed, Jabbar; Alp, Hatice; Aksin, Muhammed; Seitzer, Ulrike (2007). "Current status of ticks in Asia" (in en). Parasitology Research 101 (S2): 159–162. doi:10.1007/s00436-007-0696-3. ISSN 0932-0113. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00436-007-0696-3. 
  9. ↑ Daniel E. Sonenshine, R. Michael Roe (2014). Overview: Ticks, People, and Animals in Biology of ticks, Volume 1 (Second ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937927-9. OCLC 862106136. 
  10. ↑ Pienaar, Ronel; Neitz, Albert; Mans, Ben (2018-05-14). "Tick Paralysis: Solving an Enigma" (in en). Veterinary Sciences 5 (2): 53. doi:10.3390/vetsci5020053. ISSN 2306-7381. PMID 29757990. 
  11. ↑ Wood, William F.; Leahy, Mary G..; Galun, R.; Prestwich, G. D.; Meinwald, J.; Purnell, R. E.; Payne, J. (1975). "Phenols as Sex Pheromones of Ixodid Ticks: A General Phenomen?". J. Chemical Ecology 1: 501–509. doi:10.1007/BF00988590. 
  12. ↑ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Robbins, Richard G. (2020-11-05). "Ixodidae (Acari: Ixodoidea): descriptions and redescriptions of all known species from 1758 to December 31, 2019" (in en). Zootaxa 4871 (1): 1–322. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4871.1.1. ISSN 1175-5334. https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4871.1.1. 
  13. ↑ Bakkes, Deon K.; Chitimia-Dobler, Lidia; Matloa, Dikeledi; Oosthuysen, Morné; Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Mans, Ben J.; Matthee, Conrad A. (2020-07-01). "Integrative taxonomy and species delimitation of Rhipicephalus turanicus (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae)". International Journal for Parasitology 50 (8): 577–594. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.04.005. ISSN 0020-7519. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020751920301466. 
  14. ↑ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Horak, Ivan G.; Mulumba-Mfumu, Leopold K. (2013). "A New Species of Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodidae), a Parasite of Red River Hogs and Domestic Pigs in the Democratic Republic of Congo". Journal of Medical Entomology 50 (3): 479–484. doi:10.1603/ME12266. PMID 23802441. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1603/ME12266. 
  15. ↑ Millán, Javier; Rodríguez-Pastor, Ruth; Estrada-Peña, Agustín (2024-07-01). "Description of Rhipicephalus hibericus sp. nov. (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae), a species of the Rhipicephalus sanguineus group in southwestern Europe". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 15 (4). doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2024.102340. ISSN 1877-959X. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877959X24000335. 
  16. ↑ Šlapeta, Jan; Chandra, Shona; Halliday, Bruce (2021). "The "tropical lineage" of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato identified as Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826)". International Journal for Parasitology 51 (6): 431–436. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2021.02.001. 
  17. ↑ Šlapeta, Jan; Halliday, Bruce; Dunlop, Jason A.; Nachum-Biala, Yaarit; Salant, Harold; Ghodrati, Sajjad; Modrý, David; Harrus, Shimon (2023-01-01). "The "southeastern Europe" lineage of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus (sensu lato) identified as Rhipicephalus rutilus Koch, 1844: Comparison with holotype and generation of mitogenome reference from Israel". Current Research in Parasitology & Vector-Borne Diseases 3. doi:10.1016/j.crpvbd.2023.100118. ISSN 2667-114X. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2667114X23000067. 
  18. ↑ Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Tarragona, Evelina L.; Sebastian, Patrick S.; Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Nava, Santiago (2022-03-01). "Reestablishment of Rhipicephalus secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952 (Acari: Ixodidae)". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases 13 (2). doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101897. ISSN 1877-959X. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877959X22000036. 
  19. ↑ Kitaoka, Shigeo; Suzuki, Hiroshi (1983). "Studies on the Parasite Fauna of Thailand: 5. Parasitic ticks on mammals and description of Ixodes siamensis sp. n. and Rhipicephalus tetracornus sp. n. (Acarina: Ixodidae)". Tropical Medicine 25 (4): 205–219. 
  20. ↑ Guglielmone, Alberto A.; Robbins, Richard G.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Petney, Trevor N.; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; Horak, Ivan G. (2009). "Comments on controversial tick (Acari: Ixodida) species names and species described or resurrected from 2003 to 2008". Experimental and Applied Acarology 48 (4): 311–327. doi:10.1007/s10493-009-9246-2. PMID 19169832. http://repository.up.ac.za/bitstream/2263/13757/1/Guglielmone_Comments%282009%29.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Dantas-Torres, Filipe; de Sousa-Paula, Lucas C.; Otranto, Domenico (2024-12-27). "The Rhipicephalus sanguineus group: updated list of species, geographical distribution, and vector competence". Parasites & Vectors 17 (1): 540. doi:10.1186/s13071-024-06572-3. ISSN 1756-3305. PMID 39731169. 
  22. ↑ Kelava, Samuel; Nakao, Ryo; Mans, Ben J.; Cho, Mingeun; Mateo, Kynan B. T.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Shao, Renfu; Gofton, Alexander W. et al. (2025-09-01). "Are there 16 species of brown dog ticks? Phylogenies from 60 entire mitochondrial genomes and 162 cox1 sequences reveal 16 species-level clades in the Rhipicephalus (Rhipicephalus) sanguineus group☆☆". International Journal for Parasitology 55 (11): 581–594. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2025.04.016. ISSN 0020-7519. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0020751925000906. 
  23. ↑ Murrell, Anna; Barker, Stephen C. (2003). "Synonymy of Boophilus Curtice, 1891 with Rhipicephalus Koch, 1844 (Acari: Ixodidae)". Systematic Parasitology 56 (3): 169–172. doi:10.1023/B:SYPA.0000003802.36517.a0. PMID 14707501. 

Further reading

  • Horak, I. G. (2000). The Genus Rhipicephalus (Acardi, Ixodidae): A Guide to the Brown Ticks of the World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-521-48008-6. 

Wikidata ☰ Q2040501 entry



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