Biology:Stercomata

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Stercomata (or stercomes) are extracellular pellets of waste material produced by some groups of foraminiferans, including xenophyophoreans and komokiaceans, Gromia, and testate amoebae. The pellets are ovoid (egg-shaped), brownish in color, and on average measure from 10-20 µm in length.[1] Stercomata are composed of small mineral grains and undigested waste products held together by strands of glycosaminoglycans.[2] The term “sterkome” was first used Schaudinn in 1899 to describe the balls of undigested food remains produced by the testate amoeba Trichosphaerium sieboldi, the foraminiferan Saccammina sphaerica, and the gromiid Gromia dujardinii.[3] Schaudinn conducted feeding experiments on live individuals of Trichosphaerium sieboldi kept in culture dishes to confirm that stercomata were accumulations of waste material produced as a byproduct of feeding.

Taxonomic distribution

Foraminifera

Stercomata are produced by members of several different subclades of Foraminifera that possess organic-walled or agglutinated tests, including: single-chambered taxa with spherical organic-walled tests (e.g., Bathyallogromia and other undescribed species),[4] single-chambered taxa with sac-like agglutinated tests (e.g., Saccammina and Leptammina),[5] single-chambered taxa with tubular agglutinated tests (e.g., Bathysiphon),[6] multi-chambered taxa with organic-walled tests (e.g., Nodellum and Resigella),[7] taxa with complex agglutinated tests composed of delicate branching tubes (Komokioidea),[8] and deep-sea taxa with large, complex tests agglutinated tests (Xenophyophorea).[1]

Saccamminid foraminiferans

Komokiaceans

Xenophyophores

In xenophyophores, the stercomata are contained within an organic tubes called stercomare.

Multichambered, organic-walled foraminiferans

Gromiida

Gromiida is a subclade of Endomyxa, a clade that branches within the more inclusive group Rhizaria, a clade that encompasses a diverse array free-living and parasitic single-celled eukaryotes that possess branching or anastomosing pseudopodia and complex life cycles.[9] [10]

In Gromia, the only described genus of Gromiida, stercomata are spherical to ovoid in shape and range in color from brown to gray to orange.[11] [12] [13] Individual stercomes range in size from <5 µm (G. psammophila) to 15-30 µm (G. saoirsei).[13] Stercomata consist of the undigested remains of ingested food and may include mineral grains, sponge spicules and diatoms, which are held together by glycosaminoglycans.[12] [14] Unlike the stercomata in foraminiferans, the stercomata in gromiids are retained in the cytoplasm and not stored outside of the cell body; however, after the release of flagellated gametes during sexual reproduction, the stercomata remain in the interior of the test.[14]

Testate Amoebae

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Tendal, Øle Secher (1972). "A monograph of the Xenophyophoria (Rhizopodea, Protozoa)". Galathea Report 12: 73. 
  2. ↑ Tendal, Øle Secher (1979). "Aspects of the biology of Komokiacea and Xenophyophoria". Sarsia 64 (1–2): 15. doi:10.1080/00364827.1979.10411356. 
  3. ↑ Schaudinn, Fritz (1899). "Untersuchungen über den Generationswechsel von Trichosphaerium sieboldii Schn.". Abhandlungen der Königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1898: 44. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/96964#page/419/mode/1up. Retrieved 3 April 2022. 
  4. ↑ Gooday, A. J.; Holzmann, M.; Guiard, J.; Cornelius, N.; Pawlowski, J. (2004). "new monothalamous foraminiferan from 1000 to 6300m water depth in the Weddell Sea: morphological and molecular characterisation". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 51 (14–16): 1611. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2004.06.025. Bibcode: 2004DSRII..51.1603G. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064504001468. 
  5. ↑ Cedhagen, T. A.; Gooday, A. J.; Pawlowski, J. (2009). "A new genus and two new species of saccamminid foraminiferans (Protista, Rhizaria) from the deep Southern Ocean". Zootaxa 2096 (1): 15. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2096.1.3. https://www.biotaxa.org/Zootaxa/article/view/zootaxa.2096.1.3. 
  6. ↑ Gooday, A. J.; Pond, D. W.; Bowser, S. S. (2002). "Ecology and nutrition of the large agglutinated foraminiferan Bathysiphon capillare in the bathyal NE Atlantic: distribution within the sediment profile and lipid biomarker composition". Marine Ecology Progress Series 245: 69. doi:10.3354/meps245069. Bibcode: 2002MEPS..245...69G. https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v245/p69-82/. 
  7. ↑ Gooday, A. J.; Kamenskaya, O. E.; Kitazato, H. (2008). "The enigmatic, deep‐sea, organic‐walled genera Chitinosiphon, Nodellum and Resigella (Protista, Foraminifera): A taxonomic re‐evaluation". Systematics and Biodiversity 6 (3): 390. doi:10.1017/S1477200008002776. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477200008002776?journalCode=tsab20. 
  8. ↑ Tendal, Ø. S.; Hessler, R. R. (1977). "An introduction to the biology and systematics of Komokiacea (Textulariina, Foraminiferida)". Galathea Report 14: 171. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268274172. 
  9. ↑ Krabberød, A. K.; Orr, R. J. S.; Bråte, J.; Kristensen, T.; Bjørklund, K. R.; Shalchian-Tabrizi, K. (2017). "Single cell transcriptomics, mega-phylogeny and the genetic basis of morphological innovations in Rhizaria". Molecular Biology and Evolution 34 (7): 1559. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx075. PMID 28333264. PMC 5455982. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/34/7/1557/3058782?login=false. 
  10. ↑ Cavalier-Smith, T.; Chao, E. E.; Lewis, R. (2018). "Multigene phylogeny and cell evolution of chromist infrakingdom Rhizaria: contrasting cell organisation of sister phyla Cercozoa and Retaria". Protoplasma 255 (5): 1523. doi:10.1007/s00709-018-1241-1. PMID 29666938. 
  11. ↑ Jepps, M. W. (1926). "Contribution to the study of Gromia oviformis Dujardin". Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science s2-70 (280): 701. https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/s2-70/280/701/63157/Memoirs-Contribution-to-the-Study-of-Gromia. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hedley, R. H. (1962). "Gromia oviformis (Rhizopodea) from New Zealand with comments on the fossil Chitinozoa". New Zealand Journal of Science 5 (2): 122. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Gooday, A. J.; Holzmann, M.; Majewski, W.; Pawlowski, J. (2022). "New species of Gromia (Protista, Rhizaria) from South Georgia and the Falkland Islands". Polar Biology 45 (4): 655. doi:10.1007/s00300-022-03017-4. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00300-022-03017-4. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Hedley, R. H.; Bertaud, W. S. (1962). "Electron-microscopic observations of Gromia oviformis (Sarcodina)". Journal of Protozoology 9 (1): 81. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1962.tb02585.x. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1550-7408.1962.tb02585.x. 



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