Chemistry:Solder alloys

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Soldering copper pipes using a propane torch and a lead-free solder

Solder is a metallic material that is used to connect metal workpieces. The choice of specific solder alloys depends on their melting point, chemical reactivity, mechanical properties, toxicity, and other properties. Hence a wide range of solder alloys exist, and only major ones are listed below. Since early 2000s the use of lead in solder alloys is discouraged by several governmental guidelines in the European Union, Japan and other countries,[1] such as Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive.

Solder alloys

Composition Melting point (°C) Toxic Eutectic Comments
Solidus Liquidus
Sn
50Zn
49Cu
1 		200 300[2] No No Galvanite Lead-free galvanizing solder formulation designed specifically for high quality repairs to galvanized steel surfaces. Simple, effective and easy to use, in both manufacturing and field applications. Metallurgically bonds to the steel, for a seamless protective barrier.[2]
Sn
95.5Cu
4Ag
0.5 		226 260[3] No No KappFree provides good joint strength, vibration resistance, and thermal cycle fatigue resistance in both piping and electrical products as opposed to tin-lead solders. Higher working temperature. Wets well to brass, copper, and stainless steel. Good electrical conductivity.[3]
Sn
90Zn
7Cu
3 		200 222[4] No No Kapp Eco-Babbitt[4] Commonly used in capacitor manufacturing as protective coating to shield against electromotive force (EMF) and electromagnetic interference (EMI) with the specified performance of the capacitor, to prevent current and charge leakage out of and within the layers of the capacitor, and to prevent the development of electron flows within the coating material itself, that would diminish capacitor performance, coating, and capacitor life.[4]
Pb
90Sn
10 		268
275		 302[5]
302[6]		 Pb No Sn10, UNS L54520, ASTM10B. Balls for CBGA components, replaced by Sn
95.5Ag
3.9Cu
0.6.[7] Low cost and good bonding properties. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[8] Used for fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, for coating and bonding of metals for moderate service temperatures. Body solder.[9] Has low thermal EMF, can be used as an alternative to Cd
70 where parasitic thermocouple voltage has to be avoided.[10]
Pb
88Sn
12 		254 296[9] Pb No Used for fabrication of car radiators and fuel tanks, for coating and bonding of metals for moderate service temperatures. Body solder.
Pb
85Sn
15 		227 288[9] Pb No Used for coating tubes and sheets and fabrication of car radiators. Body solder.
Pb
80Sn
20 		183 280[6] Pb No Sn20, UNS L54711. Used for coating radiator tubes for joining fins.[9]
Pb
80Sb
15Sn
5 		300 Pb White Metal Capping. Used for locking mineshaft winding ropes into their tapered end sockets or 'capels'.[11]
Pb
75Sn
25 		183 266[5] Pb No Crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted. Used for soldering car engine radiators. Used for machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings. Superior body solder.[9]
Pb
70Sn
30 		185
183		 255
257[6]		 Pb No Sn30, UNS L54280, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, good for machine and torch soldering.[12] Used for soldering car engine radiators. Used for machine, dip and hand soldering of plumbing fixtures and fittings. Superior body solder.[9]
Pb
68Sn
32 		253 Pb No "Plumber solder", for construction plumbing works[13]
Pb
68Sn
30Sb
2 		185 243[6] Pb No Pb68
Sn
30Pb
50Zn
20 		177 288[14] Pb No Kapp GalvRepair Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including Aluminum and cast Iron. Have been used for cast Iron and galvanized surface repair.[14]
Sn
33Pb
40Zn
28 		230 275[14] Pb No Economical solder for repairing & joining most metals including Aluminum and cast Iron. Have been used for cast Iron and galvanized surface repair.[14]
Pb
67Sn
33 		187 230 Pb No PM 33, crude solder for construction plumbing works, flame-melted, temperature depends on additives
Pb
65Sn
35 		183 250[6] Pb No Sn35. Used as a cheaper alternative of Pb
60Sn
40 for wiping and sweating joints.[9]
Pb
60Sn
40 		183 238[5]
247[6]		 Pb No Sn40, UNS L54915. For soldering of brass and car radiators.[12] For bulk soldering, and where wider melting point range is desired. For joining cables. For wiping and joining lead pipes. For repairs of radiators and electrical systems.[9]
Pb
55Sn
45 		183 227[9] Pb No For soldering radiator cores, roof seams, and for decorative joints.
Sn
50Pb
50 		183 216[5]
212[6]		 Pb No Sn50, UNS L55030. "Ordinary solder", for soldering of brass, electricity meters, gas meters, formerly also tin cans. General purpose, for standard tinning and sheetmetal work. Becomes brittle below ?150 °C.[15][13] Low cost and good bonding properties. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[8] For wiping and assembling plumbing joints for non-potable water.[9]
Sn
50Pb
48.5Cu
1.5 		183 215[16] Pb No Savbit, Savbit 1, Sav1. Minimizes dissolution of copper. Originally designed to reduce erosion of the soldering iron tips. About 100 times slower erosion of copper than ordinary tin/lead alloys. Suitable for soldering thin copper platings and very thin copper wires.[17]
Sn
60Pb
40 		183 190[5]
188[6]		 Pb Near Sn60, ASTM60A, ASTM60B. Common in electronics, most popular leaded alloy for dipping. Low cost and good bonding properties. Used in both SMT and through-hole electronics. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[8] Slightly cheaper than Sn
63Pb
37, often used instead for cost reasons as the melting point difference is insignificant in practice. On slow cooling gives slightly duller joints than Sn
63Pb
37.[17]
Sn
60Pb
38Cu
2 		183 190[6][18] Pb Cu2. Copper content increases hardness of the alloy and inhibits dissolution of soldering iron tips and part leads in molten solder.
Sn
60Pb
39Cu
1 		Pb No
Sn
62Pb
38 		183 Pb Near "Tinman's solder", used for tinplate fabrication work.[13]
Sn
63Pb
37 		183[19] Pb Yes Sn63, ASTM63A, ASTM63B. Common in electronics; exceptional tinning and wetting properties, also good for stainless steel. One of the most common solders. Low cost and good bonding properties. Used in both SMT and through-hole electronics. Rapidly dissolves gold and silver, not recommended for those.[8] Sn
60Pb
40 is slightly cheaper and is often used instead for cost reasons, as the melting point difference is insignificant in practice. On slow cooling gives slightly brighter joints than Sn
60Pb
40.[17]
Sn
63Pb
37P
0.0015-
0.04 		183[20] Pb Yes Sn63PbP. A special alloy for HASL machines. Addition of phosphorus reduces oxidation. Unsuitable for wave soldering as it may form metal foam.
Sn
62Pb
37Cu
1 		183[18] Pb Yes Similar to Sn
63Pb
37. Copper content increases hardness of the alloy and inhibits dissolution of soldering iron tips and part leads in molten solder.
Sn
70Pb
30 		183 193[5] Pb No Sn70
Sn75Pb25 183 238[21] Pb No
Sn
90Pb
10 		183 213[6] Pb No formerly used for joints in food industry
Sn
95Pb
5 		238 Pb No plumbing and heating
Pb
92Sn
5.5Ag
2.5 		286 301[18] Pb No For higher-temperature applications.
Pb
80Sn
12Sb
8 		Pb No Used for soldering iron and steel[13]
Pb
80Sn
18Ag
2 		252 260[6] Pb No Used for soldering iron and steel[13]
Pb
79Sn
20Sb
1 		184 270 Pb No Sb1
Pb
55Sn
43.5Sb
1.5 		Pb No General purpose solder. Antimony content improves mechanical properties but causes brittleness when soldering cadmium, zinc, or galvanized metals.[13]
Sn
43Pb
43Bi
14 		144 163[5] Pb No Bi14. Good fatigue resistance combined with low melting point. Contains phases of tin and lead-bismuth.[22] Useful for step soldering.
Sn
46Pb
46Bi
8 		120 167[6] Pb No Bi8
Bi
52Pb
32Sn
16 		96 Pb yes? Bi52. Good fatigue resistance combined with low melting point. Reasonable shear strength and fatigue properties. Combination with lead-tin solder may dramatically lower melting point and lead to joint failure.[22]
Bi
46Sn
34Pb
20 		100 105[6] Pb No Bi46
Sn
62Pb
36Ag
2 		179[5] Pb Yes Sn62. Common in electronics. The strongest tin-lead solder. Appearance identical to Sn
60Pb
40 or Sn
63Pb
37. Crystals of Ag
3Sn may be seen growing from the solder. Extended heat treatment leads to formation of crystals of binary alloys. Silver content decreases solubility of silver, making the alloy suitable for soldering silver-metallized surfaces, e.g. SMD capacitors and other silver-metallized ceramics.[15][17][22] Not recommended for gold.[8] General-purpose.
Sn
62.5Pb
36Ag
2.5 		179[5] Pb Yes
Pb
88Sn
10Ag
2 		268
267		 290[5]
299[23]		 Pb No Sn10, Pb88. Silver content reduces solubility of silver coatings in the solder. Not recommended for gold.[8] Forms a eutectic phase, not recommended for operation above 120 °C.
Pb
90Sn
5Ag
5 		292[5] Pb Yes
Pb
92.5Sn
5Ag
2.5 		287
299		 296[5]
304[6]		 Pb No Pb93.
Pb
93.5Sn
5Ag
1.5 		296
305		 301[5]
306[6]		 Pb No Pb94, HMP alloy, HMP. Service temperatures up to 255 °C. Useful for step soldering. Also can be used for extremely low temperatures as it remains ductile down to −200 °C, while solders with more than 20% tin become brittle below −70 °C. Higher strength and better wetting than Pb
95Sn
5.[17]
Pb
95.5Sn
2Ag
2.5 		299 304[5] Pb No
In
97Ag
3 		143[24] No Yes Wettability and low-temperature malleability of indium, strength improved by addition of silver. Particularly good for cryogenic applications. Used for packaging of photonic devices.
In
90Ag
10 		143 237[25] No No Nearly as wettable and low-temperature malleable as indium. Large plastic range. Can solder silver, fired glass and ceramics.
In
75Pb
25 		156 165[8] Pb No Less gold dissolution and more ductile than lead-tin alloys. Used for die attachment, general circuit assembly and packaging closures.[8]
In
70Pb
30 		160
165		 174[5]
175[6][26]		 Pb No In70. Suitable for gold, low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.
In
60Pb
40 		174
173		 185[5]
181[6]		 Pb No In60. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.
In
50Pb
50 		180
178		 209[8]
210[6]		 Pb No In50. Only one phase. Resoldering with lead-tin solder forms indium-tin and indium-lead phases and leads to formation of cracks between the phases, joint weakening and failure.[22] On gold surfaces gold-indium intermetallics tend to be formed, and the joint then fails in the gold-depleted zone and the gold-rich intermetallic.[27] Less gold dissolution and more ductile than lead-tin alloys.[8] Good thermal fatigue properties.
In
50Sn
50 		118 125[28] No No Cerroseal 35. Fairly well wets glass, quartz and many ceramics. Malleable, can compensate some thermal expansion differences. Low vapor pressure. Used in low temperature physics as a glass-wetting solder.[29]
In
70Sn
15Pb
9.6Cd
5.4 		125[30] Cd, Pb
Pb
75In
25 		250
240		 264[8]
260[31]		 Pb No In25. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties. Used for die attachment of e.g. GaAs dies.[27] Used also for general circuit assembly and packaging closures. Less dissolution of gold and more ductile than tin-lead alloy.[8]
Sn
70Pb
18In
12 		162[5] Pb Yes General purpose. Good physical properties.
154 167[32]
Sn
37.5Pb
37.5In
25 		134 181[8] Pb No Good wettability. Not recommended for gold.[8]
Pb
90In
5Ag
5 		290 310[5] Pb No
Pb
92.5In
5Ag
2.5 		300 310[5] Pb No UNS L51510. Minimal leaching of gold, good thermal fatigue properties. Reducing atmosphere frequently used..
Pb
92.5In
5Au
2.5 		300 310[6] Pb No In5
Pb
94.5Ag
5.5 		305
304		 364[6]
343[33]		 Pb No Ag5.5, UNS L50180
Pb
95Ag
5 		305 364[34] Pb No
Pb
97.5Ag
2.5 		303[5]
304[6] 		Pb Yes Ag2.5, UNS L50132. Used during World War II to conserve tin. Poor corrosion resistance; joints suffered corrosion in both atmospheric and underground conditions, all had to be replaced with Sn-Pb alloy joints.[35] Torch solder.
304 579[36]
Sn
97.5Pb
1Ag
1.5 		305 Pb Yes Important for hybrid circuits assembly.[15]
Pb
97.5Ag
1.5Sn
1 		309[5] Pb Yes Ag1.5, ASTM1.5S. High melting point, used for commutators, armatures, and initial solder joints where remelting when working on nearby joints is undesirable.[12] Silver content reduces solubility of silver coatings in molten solder. Not recommended for gold.[8] Standard PbAgSn eutectic solder, wide use in semiconductor assembly. Reducing protective atmosphere (e.g. 12% hydrogen) often used. High creep resistance, for use at both elevated and cryogenic temperatures.
Pb
54Sn
45Ag
1 		177 210 Pb exceptional strength, silver gives it a bright long-lasting finish; ideal for stainless steel[12]
Pb
96Ag
4 		305 Pb high-temperature joints[12]
Pb
96Sn
2Ag
2 		252 295[6] Pb Pb96
Sn
61Pb
36Ag
3 		205[37] Pb [15] Often referred as POS61 (Russian: ПОС61) in Russia (silver may not be necessarily present).
Sn
56Pb
39Ag
5 		Pb [15]
Sn
98Ag
2 		No [15]
Sn
65Ag
25Sb
10 		233 No Yes Very high tensile strength. For die attachment. Very brittle. Old Motorola die attach solder.
Sn
96.5Ag
3.0Cu
0.5 		217 220
218[6][38]		 No Near SAC305. It is the JEITA recommended alloy for wave and reflow soldering, with alternatives SnCu for wave and SnAg and SnZnBi for reflow soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
97Ag
3 alloy. Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals. Weakens at thermal cycling, concern of whisker growth, large Ag
3Sn intermetallic platelet precipitates causing mechanical weakening and poor shock/drop performance. Tendency to creep.[39]
Sn
98.5Ag
1.0Cu
0.5 		220 225 No Near SAC105 alloy contains the least amount of silver among lead-free solders. It is compatible with all flux types and is relatively inexpensive; it exhibits good fatigue resistance, wetting and solder joint reliability
Sn
95.8Ag
3.5Cu
0.7 		217 218 No Near SN96C-Ag3.5 A commonly used alloy. Used for wave soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.5Ag
3.5 alloy (designated e.g. SN
96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.
Sn
95.6Ag
3.5Cu
0.9 		217 No Yes Determined by NIST to be truly eutectic.
Sn
95.5Ag
3.8Cu
0.7 		217[40] No Near SN96C. Preferred by the European IDEALS consortium for reflow soldering. Usable also for selective soldering and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.2Ag
3.8 alloy (designated e.g. SN96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.
Sn
95.25Ag
3.8Cu
0.7Sb
0.25 		No Preferred by the European IDEALS consortium for wave soldering.
Sn
95.5Ag
3.9Cu
0.6 		217[41] No Yes Recommended by the US NEMI consortium for reflow soldering. Used as balls for BGA/CSP and CBGA components, a replacement for Sn
10Pb
90. Solder paste for rework of BGA boards.[7] Alloy of choice for general SMT assembly.
Sn
95.5Ag
4Cu
0.5 		217[42] No Yes SAC405. Lead-Free, Cadmium Free formulation designed specifically to replace Lead solders in Copper and Stainless Steel plumbing, and in electrical and electronic applications.[3]
Sn
96.5Ag
3.5 		221[5] No Yes Sn
96, Sn
96.5, 96S. Fine lamellar structure of densely distributed Ag
3Sn. Annealing at 125 °C coarsens the structure and softens the solder.[7] Creeps via dislocation climb as a result of lattice diffusion.[43] Used as wire for hand soldering rework; compatible with SnCu
0.7, SnAg
3Cu
0.5, SnAg
3.9Cu
0.6, and similar alloys. Used as solder spheres for BGA/CSP components. Used for step soldering and die attachment in high power devices. Established history in the industry.[7] Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold.[8] Marginal wetting. Good for step soldering. Used for soldering stainless steel as it wets stainless steel better than other soft solders. Silver content does not suppress dissolution of silver metallizations.[17] High tin content allows absorbing significant amount of gold without embrittlement.[44]
Sn
96Ag
4 		221 229 No No ASTM96TS. "Silver-bearing solder". Food service equipment, refrigeration, heating, air conditioning, plumbing.[12] Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold.[8]
Sn
95Ag
5 		221 254[45] No No Widely used. Strong lead-free joints. Silver content minimizes solubility of silver coatings. Not recommended for gold. Produces strong and ductile joints on Copper and Stainless Steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 30,000 psi on Stainless.[45]
Sn
94Ag
6 		221 279[45] No No Produces strong and ductile joints on Copper and Stainless Steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 30,000 psi on Stainless.[45]
Sn
93Ag
7 		221 302[45] No No Produces strong and ductile joints on Copper and Stainless Steel. The resulting joints have high tolerance to vibration and stress, with tensile strengths to 31,000 psi on Stainless.[45] Audio industry standard for vehicle and home theater speaker installations. Its 7% Silver content requires a higher temperature range, but yields superior strength and vibration resistance.[46]
Sn
95Ag
4Cu
1 		No
Sn 232 No Pure Sn99. Good strength, non-dulling. Use in food processing equipment, wire tinning, and alloying.[12] Susceptible to tin pest.
Sn
99.3Cu
0.7 		228[1] No Yes Sn99Cu1. Also designated as Sn
99Cu
1. Cheap alternative for wave soldering, recommended by the US NEMI consortium. Coarse microstructure with ductile fractures. Sparsely distributed Cu
6Sn
5.[1][47] Forms large dendritic ß-tin crystals in a network of eutectic microstructure with finely dispersed Cu
6Sn
5. High melting point unfavorable for SMT use. Low strength, high ductility. Susceptible to tin pest.[43] Addition of small amount of nickel increases its fluidity; the highest increase occurs at 0.06% Ni. Such alloys are known as nickel modified or nickel stabilized.[48]
Sn
99.3Cu
0.7Ni
0.05Ge
0.009 		227[49] Yes Sn100C, a lead-free silver-free nickel-stabilized alloy. Similar to Sn99Cu1. The nickel content lowers copper erosion and promotes shiny solder fillet. The presence of germanium promotes flow and reduces dross formation. Performance similar to SAC alloys at lower cost. Dross formation rate comparable to lead-tin alloys.
Sn
99.3Cu
0.7Ni?Bi? 		227[50] Yes K100LD, a lead-free silver-free nickel-stabilized alloy, with low dissolving (LD) of copper. Proprietary of Kester. Similar to Sn99Cu1. The nickel content lowers copper erosion and promotes shiny solder fillet. Bismuth acts in synergy with nickel to further reduce copper dissolution and reduces surface tension. Performance similar to SAC alloys at lower cost. K100LDa has 0.2% copper, used to refill wave soldering pots to counteract copper buildup. Lower than optimal nickel content to avoid patents?[51]
Sn
99Cu
0.7Ag
0.3 		217 228[52] No No SCA, SAC, or SnAgCu. Tin-silver-copper alloy. Relatively low-cost lead-free alloy for simple applications. Can be used for wave, selective and dip soldering. At high temperatures tends to dissolve copper; copper buildup in the bath has detrimental effect (e.g. increased bridging). Copper content must be maintained between 0.4–0.85%, e.g. by refilling the bath with Sn
96.2Ag
3.8 alloy (designated e.g. SN96Ce). Nitrogen atmosphere can be used to reduce losses by dross formation. Dull, surface shows formation of dendritic tin crystals.
Sn
97Cu
3 		227
232		 250[53]
332[9]		 No For high-temperature uses. Allows removing insulation from an enameled wire and applying solder coating in a single operation. For radiator repairs, stained glass windows, and potable water plumbing.
Sn
97Cu
2.75Ag
0.25 		228 314[9] No High hardness, creep-resistant. For radiators, stained glass windows, and potable water plumbing. Excellent high-strength solder for radiator repairs. Wide range of patina and colors.
Zn
100 		419 No Pure For soldering aluminium. Good wettability of aluminium, relatively good corrosion resistance.[54]
Bi
100 		271 No Pure Used as a non-superconducting solder in low-temperature physics. Does not wet metals well, forms a mechanically weak joint.[29]
Sn
91Zn
9 		199[55] No Yes KappAloy9 Designed specifically for Aluminum-to-Aluminum and Aluminum-to-Copper soldering. It has good corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Lies between soft solder and silver brazing alloys, thereby avoiding damage to critical electronics and substrate deformation and segregation. Best solder for Aluminum wire to Copper busses or Copper wire to Aluminum busses or contacts.[55] UNS#: L91090
Sn
85Zn
15 		199 260[55] No No KappAloy15 Designed specifically for Aluminum-to-Aluminum and Aluminum-to-Copper soldering. It has good corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Lies between soft solder and silver brazing alloys, thereby avoiding damage to critical electronics and substrate deformation and segregation. Has a wide plastic range this makes it ideal for hand soldering Aluminum plates and parts, allowing manipulation of the parts as the solder cools.[55]
Zn
95Al
5 		382 No Yes For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[54]
Sn
91.8Bi
4.8Ag
3.4 		211 213[56] No No Do not use on lead-containing metallizations.[57]
Sn
70Zn
30 		199 316[55] No No KappAloy30 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[55]
Sn
80Zn
20 		199 288[55] No No KappAloy20 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[55]
Sn
60Zn
40 		199 343[55] No No KappAloy40 For soldering of aluminium. Good wetting. Used extensively in spray wire form for capacitors and other electronic parts. Higher temperature and higher tensile strength compared to 85Sn/15Zn and 91Sn/9Zn.[55]
Pb
63Sn
35Sb
2 		185 243[6] Pb No Sb2
Pb
63Sn
34Zn
3 		170 256 Pb No Poor wetting of aluminium. Poor corrosion rating.[35]
Pb
92Cd
8 		310? Cd, Pb ? For soldering aluminium.[58][59]
Sn
48Bi
32Pb
20 		140 160[18] Pb No For low-temperature soldering of heat-sensitive parts, and for soldering in the vicinity of already soldered joints without their remelting.
Sn
89Zn
8Bi
3 		191 198 No Prone to corrosion and oxidation due to its zinc content. On copper surfaces forms a brittle Cu-Zn intermetallic layer, reducing the fatigue resistance of the joint; nickel plating of copper inhibits this.[60]
Sn
83.6Zn
7.6In
8.8 		181 187[61] No No High dross due to zinc.[62]
Sn
86.5Zn
5.5In
4.5Bi
3.5 		174 186[63] No No Lead-free. Corrosion concerns and high drossing due to zinc content.
Sn
86.9In
10Ag
3.1 		204 205[64] No Potential use in flip-chip assembly, no issues with tin-indium eutectic phase.
Sn
95Ag
3.5Zn
1Cu
0.5 		221[60] No No
Sn
95Sb
5 		235
232		 240[5][6] No No Sb5, ASTM95TA. The US plumbing industry standard. It displays good resistance to thermal fatigue and good shear strength. Forms coarse dendrites of tin-rich solid solution with SbSn intermetallic dispersed between. Very high room-temperature ductility. Creeps via viscous glide of dislocations by pipe diffusion. More creep-resistant than SnAg
3.5. Antimony can be toxic. Used for sealing chip packagings, attaching I/O pins to ceramic substrates, and die attachment; a possible lower-temperature replacement of AuSn.[43] High strength and bright finish. Use in air conditioning, refrigeration, some food containers, and high-temperature applications.[12] Good wettability, good long-term shear strength at 100 °C. Suitable for potable water systems. Used for stained glass, plumbing, and radiator repairs.
Sn
97Sb
3 		232 238[65] No No
Sn
99Sb
1 		232 235[66] No No
Sn
99Ag
0.3Cu
0.7 		No
Sn
96.2Ag
2.5Cu
0.8Sb
0.5 		217[6] 225 No Ag03A. Patented by AIM alliance.
Sn
88In
8.0Ag
3.5Bi
0.5
Bi
57Sn
42Ag
1 		137
139		 139
140[67]		 No Addition of silver improves mechanical strength. Established history of use. Good thermal fatigue performance. Patented by Motorola.
Bi
58Sn
42 		138[5][8] No Yes Bi58. Reasonable shear strength and fatigue properties. Combination with lead-tin solder may dramatically lower melting point and lead to joint failure.[22] Low-temperature eutectic solder with high strength.[8] Particularly strong, very brittle.[5] Used extensively in through-hole technology assemblies in IBM mainframe computers where low soldering temperature was required. Can be used as a coating of copper particles to facilitate their bonding under pressure/heat and creating a conductive metallurgical joint.[60] Sensitive to shear rate. Good for electronics. Used in thermoelectric applications. Good thermal fatigue performance.[68] Established history of use. Expands slightly on casting, then undergoes very low further shrinkage or expansion, unlike many other low-temperature alloys which continue changing dimensions for some hours after solidification.[29]
Bi
58Pb
42 		124 126[69] Pb
In
80Pb
15Ag
5 		142
149		 149[6]
154[70]		 Pb No In80. Compatible with gold, minimum gold-leaching. Resistant to thermal fatigue. Can be used in step soldering.
Pb
60In
40 		195 225[6] Pb No In40. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.
Pb
70In
30 		245 260[6] Pb No In30
Sn
37.5Pb
37.5In
26 		134 181[6] Pb No In26
Sn
54Pb
26In
20 		130
140		 154[6]
152[71]		 Pb No In20
Pb
81In
19 		270
260		 280[6]
275[72]		 Pb No In19. Low gold-leaching. Good thermal fatigue properties.
In
52Sn
48 		118 No Yes In52. Suitable for the cases where low-temperature soldering is needed. Can be used for glass sealing.[60] Sharp melting point. Good wettability of glass, quartz, and many ceramics. Good low-temperature malleability, can compensate for different thermal expansion coefficients of joined materials.
Sn
52In
48 		118 131[5] No No very low tensile strength
Sn
58In
42 		118 145[73] No No
Sn
51.2Pb
30.6Cd
18.2 		145[74] Cd, Pb Yes General-purpose. Maintains creep strength well. Unsuitable for gold.
Sn
77.2In
20Ag
2.8 		175 187[75] No No Similar mechanical properties with Sn
63Pb
37, Sn
62Pb
36Ag
2 and Sn
60Pb
40, suitable lead-free replacement. Contains eutectic Sn-In phase with melting point at 118 °C, avoid use above 100 °C.
In
74Cd
26 		123[76] Cd Yes
In
66.7Bi
33.3 		72.7
In
61.7Bi
30.8Cd
7.5 		62[77] Cd Yes
Bi
47.5Pb
25.4Sn
12.6Cd
9.5In
5 		57 65[78] Cd, Pb No
Bi
48Pb
25.4Sn
12.8Cd
9.6In
4 		61 65[79] Cd, Pb No
Bi
49Pb
18Sn
15In
18 		58 69[80] Pb No
Bi
49Pb
18Sn
12In
21 		58 Pb Yes Cerrolow 136. Slightly expands on cooling, later shows slight shrinkage in couple hours afterwards. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics.[29] Also the ChipQuik desoldering alloy.[81]
Bi
50.5Pb
27.8Sn
12.4Cd
9.3 		70 73[82] Cd, Pb No
Bi
50Pb
26.7Sn
13.3Cd
10 		70 Cd, Pb Yes Cerrobend. Used in low-temperature physics as a solder.[29]
Bi
44.7Pb
22.6In
19.1Cd
5.3Sn
8.3 		47 Cd, Pb Yes Cerrolow 117. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics.[29]
In
60Sn
40 		113 122[5] No No
In
51.0Bi
32.5Sn
16.5 		60.5 No Yes Field's metal
Bi
49.5Pb
27.3Sn
13.1Cd
10.1 		70.9 Cd, Pb Near Lipowitz Metal
Bi
50.0Pb
25.0Sn
12.5Cd
12.5 		71 Cd, Pb Near Wood's metal, mostly used for casting.
Bi
50.0Pb
31.2Sn
18.8 		97 Pb No Newton's metal
Bi
50Pb
28Sn
22 		109 Pb No Rose's metal. It was used to secure cast iron railings and balusters in pockets in stone bases and steps. Does not contract on cooling.
Bi
56Sn
30In
14 		79 91 No ChipQuik desoldering alloy, lead-free[83]
Cd
95Ag
5 		338 393[84] Cd No KappTec General purpose solder that will join all solderable metals except Aluminum. High temperature, high strength solder. It is used in applications where alloys melting higher than soft solders are required, but the cost and strength of Silver-brazing alloys is not necessary.[84]
Cd
82.5Zn
17.5
Cd
70Zn
30 		265 300[85] Cd No Medium temperature alloy that provide strong, corrosion-resistant joints on most metals. Works especially well on Aluminum-to-Aluminum and Aluminum-to-Copper joints, with excellent corrosion resistance and superior strength in high vibration and high stress applications in electronics, lighting and electrical products.[85]
Cd
60Zn
40 		265 316[85] Cd No Medium temperature alloy that provide strong, corrosion-resistant joints on most metals. Works especially well on Aluminum-to-Aluminum and Aluminum-to-Copper joints, with excellent corrosion resistance and superior strength in high vibration and high stress applications in electronics, lighting and electrical products.[85]
Cd
78Zn
17Ag
5 		249 316[86] Cd No KappTecZ High temperature, high strength solder that may be used on most metals, but works extremely well on Aluminum, Copper and Stainless Steel. It has a high tolerance to vibration and stress, and good elongation for use on dissimilar metals. Above its liquidus of 600 °F, this solder is extremely fluid and will penetrate the closest joints.[86]
Sn
40Zn
27Cd
33 		176 260[87] Cd No KappRad[87] Developed specifically to join and repair Aluminum and Aluminum/Copper radiators and heat exchangers. A lower melting point makes delicate repair work easier.[87]
Zn
90Cd
10 		265 399 Cd For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[54]
Zn
60Cd
40 		265 335 Cd For soldering aluminium. Very good wetting.[54]
Cd
70Sn
30 		140 160[6] Cd No Cd70, thermal-free solder. Produces low thermal EMF joints in copper, does not form parasitic thermocouples. Used in low-temperature physics.[29]
Sn
50Pb
32Cd
18 		145[6] Cd, Pb Cd18
Sn
40Pb
42Cd
18 		145[88] Cd, Pb Low melting temperature allows repairing pewter and zinc objects, including die-cast toys.
Zn
70Sn
30 		199 376 No No For soldering aluminium. Excellent wetting.[35] Good strength.
Zn
60Sn
40 		199 341 No No For soldering aluminium. Good wetting.[54]
Zn
95Sn
5 		382 No yes? For soldering aluminium. Excellent wetting.[35]
Sn
90Au
10 		217[89] No Yes
Au
80Sn
20 		280 No Yes Au80. Good wetting, high strength, low creep, high corrosion resistance, high thermal conductivity, high surface tension, zero wetting angle. Suitable for step soldering. The original flux-less alloy, does not need flux. Used for die attachment and attachment of metal lids to semiconductor packages, e.g. kovar lids to ceramic chip carriers. Coefficient of expansion matching many common materials. Due to zero wetting angle requires pressure to form a void-free joint. Alloy of choice for joining gold-plated and gold-alloy plated surfaces. As some gold dissolves from the surfaces during soldering and moves the composition to non-eutectic state (1% increase of Au content can increase melting point by 30 °C), subsequent desoldering requires higher temperature.[90] Forms a mixture of two brittle intermetallic phases, AuSn and Au
5Sn.[91] Brittle. Proper wetting achieved usually by using nickel surfaces with gold layer on top on both sides of the joint. Comprehensively tested through military standard environmental conditioning. Good long-term electrical performance, history of reliability.[27] One of the best materials for soldering in optoelectronic devices and components packaging. Low vapor pressure, suitable for vacuum work. Generally used in applications that require a melting temperature over 150 °C.[92] Good ductility. Also classified as a braze.
Au
98Si
2 		370 800[6] No Au98. A non-eutectic alloy used for die attachment of silicon dies. Ultrasonic assistance is needed to scrub the chip surface so a eutectic (3.1% Si) is reached at reflow.
Au
96.8Si
3.2 		370[6] 363[93] No Yes Au97.[90] AuSi
3.2 is a eutectic with melting point of 363 °C. AuSi forms a meniscus at the edge of the chip, unlike AuSn, as AuSi reacts with the chip surface. Forms a composite material structure of submicron silicon plates in soft gold matrix. Tough, slow crack propagation.[47]
Au
87.5Ge
12.5 		361
356[6]		 No Yes Au88. Used for die attachment of some chips.[5] The high temperature may be detrimental to the chips and limits reworkability.[27]
Au
82In
18 		451 485[6] No No Au82. High-temperature, extremely hard, very stiff.
In
100 		157 No Pure In99. Used for die attachment of some chips. More suitable for soldering gold, dissolution rate of gold is 17 times slower than in tin-based solders and up to 20% of gold can be tolerated without significant embrittlement. Good performance at cryogenic temperatures.[94] Wets many surfaces incl. quartz, glass, and many ceramics. Deforms indefinitely under load. Does not become brittle even at low temperatures. Used as a solder in low-temperature physics, will bond to aluminium. Can be used for soldering to thin metal films or glass with an ultrasonic soldering iron.[29]
Sn
90.7Ag
3.6Cu
0.7Cr
5 		217 1050[95] No No C-Solder. Lead-free, low-temperature soldering alloy for joining of various carbon materials including carbon fibres and carbon nanotube fibres in both carbon-carbon and carbon-metal arrangements. Produces mechanically strong and electrically conductive bonds. Provides wetting of carbon[96] and other materials generally considered as difficult to solder, including aluminium, stainless steel, titanium, glass, and ceramics.

Notes on the above table

In the Sn-Pb alloys, tensile strength increases with increasing tin content. Indium-tin alloys with high indium content have very low tensile strength.[5]

For soldering semiconductor materials, e.g. die attachment of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide, it is important that the solder contains no impurities that could cause doping in the wrong direction. For soldering n-type semiconductors, solder may be doped with antimony; indium may be added for soldering p-type semiconductors. Pure tin can also be used.[35][97]

Various fusible alloys can be used as solders with very low melting points; examples include Field's metal, Lipowitz's alloy, Wood's metal, and Rose's metal.

Properties

The thermal conductivity of common solders ranges from 30 to 400 W/(m·K), and the density from 9.25 to 15.00 g/cm3.[98][99]

Material Thermal conductivity[99]
(W/m·K) 		Melting point[99]
(°C)
Sn-37Pb (eutectic) 50.9 183
Sn-0.7Cu 53[1] 227
Sn-2.8Ag-20.0In 53.5 175–186
Sn-2.5Ag-0.8Cu-0.5Sb 57.26 215–217
Pb-5Sn 63 310
Lead (Pb) 35.0 327.3
Tin (Sn) 73.0 231.9
Aluminum (Al) 240 660.1
Copper (Cu) 393–401 1083
FR-4 1.7

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Meng Zhao, Liang Zhang, Zhi-Quan Liu, Ming-Yue Xiong, and Lei Sun (2019). "Structure and properties of Sn-Cu lead-free solders in electronics packaging". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 20 (1): 421–444. doi:10.1080/14686996.2019.1591168. PMID 31489052. Bibcode: 2019STAdM..20..421Z.  open access
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Galvanite". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/galvanite-solder.php. Retrieved 23 October 2012. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "KappFree". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/kappfree-elec-solder.php. Retrieved 2 March 2015. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Kapp Alloy. "Kapp Eco Babbitt". http://www.smtnet.com/company/index.cfm?fuseaction=view_company&company_id=54254&component=catalog&catalog_id=18662. Retrieved 4 April 2013. 
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 Charles A. Harper (2003). Electronic materials and processes. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 5–8. ISBN 978-0-07-140214-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=CQGPGwFuPRkC&pg=SA5-PA8. 
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 "Solder Alloys". https://invacu.com/solder-alloys. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Sanka Ganesan; Michael Pecht (2006). Lead-free electronics. Wiley. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-471-78617-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=z4Ha0AYdon4C&pg=PA110. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 Ray P. Prasad (1997). Surface mount technology: principles and practice. Springer. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-412-12921-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IcxDPA2U6esC&pg=PA385. 
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 SOLDER ALLOYS Selection Chart. (PDF). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
  10. ↑ Walt Kester James Bryant Walt Jung Scott Wurcer Chuck Kitchin (2005). "Ch. 4. Sensor Signal Conditioning". Op Amp Applications Handbook. Newnes/Elsevier. p. 4.49. ISBN 0-7506-7844-5. http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/39-05/Web_Ch4_final.pdf. 
  11. ↑ T R Barnard (1959). "Winding Ropes and Guide Ropes". Mechanical Engineering. Coal Mining Series (2nd ed.). London: Virtue. pp. 374–375. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 Madara Ogot; Gul Okudan-Kremer (2004). Engineering design: a practical guide. Trafford. p. 445. ISBN 978-1-4120-3850-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=M5BWtQ-xjeUC&pg=PA445. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Kaushish (2008). Manufacturing Processes. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 378. ISBN 978-81-203-3352-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZOXXV9LdcwC&pg=PA378. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 "Kapp GalvRepair". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tin-zinc-lead-solder.php. Retrieved 23 October 2012. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Howard H. Manko (2001). Solders and soldering: materials, design, production, and analysis for reliable bonding. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-07-134417-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=MvSMg5HC1YcC&pg=PA164. 
  16. ↑ 3439-00-577-7594 Solder, Tin Alloy. Tpub.com. Retrieved 2010-07-06.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Properties of Solders. farnell.com.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Pajky_vkladanylist_Cze_ang_2010.indd. (PDF). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
  19. ↑ "Balve Zinn Solder Sn63Pb37 – Balver Zinn". http://www.balverzinn.com/solder-Sn63Pb37.html?file=tl_files/balverzinn/downloads/datenblaetter_en/Solder%20Sn63Pb37.pdf. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  20. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder Sn63PbP". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_Sn63PbP.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  21. ↑ "Safety Data Sheet". January 1, 2017. https://resource.bakerdist.com/is/content/Watscocom/Gemaire/amerway_sn50pb50_article_1456219847370_en_ss.pdf. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 John H. Lau (1991). Solder joint reliability: theory and applications. Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-442-00260-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=vMpHHWboSAAC&pg=PA178. 
  23. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 228 Pb-Sn-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5ef2e290b637430483aab758ac193f3c. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  24. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 290 In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a8d11bdcc82c4410af96f5d43579d420. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  25. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 3 In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=08d1a1dea82b4e13ac90e38eecb0b919. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  26. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 204 In-Pb Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=afcc8e122d334379a6d0d7d7079fc54d. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Merrill L. Minges (1989). Electronic Materials Handbook: Packaging. ASM International. p. 758. ISBN 978-0-87170-285-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=c2YxCCaM9RIC&pg=PA758. 
  28. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 1 Indium-Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=718dfcb678cc42359978349a905862bc. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 29.7 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named lowtemp
  30. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 13 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=802ee7cd28ef4fd59cdc87d7e1fef98b. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  31. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 10 Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=3cc5ca3fdb7848bda630047dd05bb6b3. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  32. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 9 Sn-Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5edfeb10d3c74d44967d0d605328c1e8. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  33. ↑ "94.5Pb-5.5Ag Lead-Silver Solder, ASTM Class 5.5S; UNS L50180". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=0225ffa15e7e4a87a61bf164dc0f77e1. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  34. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 175 Lead Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=7a0646b6fbce4f79b2cee716edc3f66f. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 Symposium on Solder. ASTM International. 1957. p. 114. https://books.google.com/books?id=gW6zNhhy5ZQC&pg=PA114. 
  36. ↑ "97.5Pb-2.5Ag Lead-Silver Solder, ASTM Class 2.5S UNS L50132". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=299122b40d9246bfa960a15e875d1464. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  37. ↑ "Alloy Temperature Chart". Kester. https://www.kester.com/Portals/0/Documents/Knowledge%20Base/Alloy%20Temperature%20Chart.pdf. 
  38. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SN97C (SnAg3.0Cu0.5)". http://www.balverzinn.com/tl_files/balverzinn/downloads/datenblaetter_en/Solder%20SN97C.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  39. ↑ Karl Seelig (2017) New Pb-Free Solder Alloy for Demanding Applications. VP Technology, AIM Solder
  40. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SN96C (SnAg3,8Cu0,7)". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_SN96C.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  41. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 252 95.5Sn/3.9Ag/0.6Cu Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=a811b22a9ddd406d88a92130ebc9a9f0. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  42. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 246 95.5Sn/4.0Ag/0.5Cu Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=19662ece2a4a4bb2bbe7aa522f916185. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Karl J. Puttlitz; Kathleen A. Stalter (2004). Handbook of lead-free solder technology for microelectronic assemblies. CRC Press. p. 541. ISBN 978-0-8247-4870-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA541. 
  44. ↑ "Solder selection for photonic packaging". AIM Metals & Alloys. 27 February 2013. http://www.aimsolder.com/specialty-materials-division-solders-photonic-packing. Retrieved 20 August 2016. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 "KappZapp". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/zapp-solder.php. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  46. ↑ "KappZapp7". SolderDirect.com. http://www.solderdirect.com/all-products/non-aluminum-soldering/kappzapp/kappzapp7tm.html. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Sanka Ganesan; Michael Pecht (2006). Lead-free electronics. Wiley. p. 404. ISBN 978-0-471-78617-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=z4Ha0AYdon4C&pg=PA110. 
  48. ↑ Keith William Sweatman and Tetsuro Nishimura (January 2006). "The Fluidity of the Ni-Modified Sn-Cu Eutectic Lead-Free Solder". Nihon Superior Co., Ltd. http://www.aimsolder.com/sites/default/files/the_fluidity_of_the_ni-modified_sn-cu_eutectic_lead-free_solder_white_paper.pdf. 
  49. ↑ SN100C® LEAD-FREE SOLDER ALLOY. aimsolder.com
  50. ↑ K100LD. kester.com
  51. ↑ SN100C® Technical Guide. floridacirtech.com
  52. ↑ "Balver Zinn Solder SCA (SnCu0.7Ag0.3)". http://www.balverzinn.com/downloads/Solder_SCA.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  53. ↑ Balver Zinn Solder Sn97Cu3
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 Howard H. Manko (2001). Solders and soldering: materials, design, production, and analysis for reliable bonding. McGraw-Hill Professional. pp. 396–. ISBN 978-0-07-134417-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=MvSMg5HC1YcC&pg=PA396. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 55.5 55.6 55.7 55.8 55.9 "KappAloy". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tin-zinc-solder.php. Retrieved 23 October 2012. 
  56. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 249 91.8Sn/3.4Ag/4.8Bi Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fbf7a599eb0e407981ed2f785bbe24ee. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  57. ↑ Paul T. Vianco and Jerome A. Rejent (1994) "Tin-silver-bismuth solders for electronics assembly " U.S. Patent 5,439,639
  58. ↑ George P Luckey (1920) U.S. Patent 1,333,666
  59. ↑ Composition And Physical Properties Of Alloys . Csudh.edu (2007-08-18). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Karl J. Puttlitz; Kathleen A. Stalter (2004). Handbook of lead-free solder technology for microelectronic assemblies. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-4870-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=H75TywRXUK4C&pg=PA21. 
  61. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 226 Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=64d8ba345b524cdc815a1df1dc7142b0. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  62. ↑ Laurence G. Stevens and Charles E. T. White (1992) "Lead-free alloy containing tin, zinc and indium" U.S. Patent 5,242,658
  63. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 231 Sn-Zn-In-Bi Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=67e162f8c187441a85e22ea1b98b52a0. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  64. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 254 86.9Sn/10.0In/3.1Ag Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=778b662660244af7b8d9689a007e8813. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  65. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 131 97Sn/3Sb Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fc88a689e7ab481194cc1c5a1e2eb6a1. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  66. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 129 99Sn/1Sb Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=6b43308933eb48bba5f38c1217c73ce3. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  67. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 282 57Bi/42Sn/1Ag Lead-Free Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=3f9d5aa624ea454f81308048ab101817. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  68. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 281 Bi-Sn Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=967a4cd7871b46fa9128a29c303cf8be. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  69. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 67 Bismuth-Lead Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=4c19e3682c3b4d3198f3025b81cce73f. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  70. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 2 In-Pb-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=03e0734456b74c088b9f9c19f6af6ab9. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  71. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 532 Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=fcd842de41fd4fcba9250418612914bf. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  72. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 150 Pb-In Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=d7525946b1a446afa73b5dd52997a283. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  73. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 87 Indium-Tin Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=aea1c42aa0a341aa948d7103c3a4564b. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  74. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 181 Sn-Pb-Cd Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=199da4a304e44104868eaf537a7c9a16. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  75. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 227 Sn-In-Ag Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=e2f902d610494ab7a7f500fcfbdb43cc. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  76. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 253 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=1fef3a2158ba400abe6f7e2a5c171ca1. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  77. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 18 Indium Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=4ccb81db2b7e4eb5a517409445b37deb. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  78. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 140 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=61beeec304154e14b711984757f073ed. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  79. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 147 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=bf336aff588c4e72acb714d5a4ae13c6. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  80. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 21 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=5a48bcea477c4b2eb9153f5fc28243da. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  81. ↑ Johnson Manufacturing Co, MSDS for Chip Quik Alloy w/Lead. Retrieved on February 6, 2015.
  82. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 22 Bismuth Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=82d47484509e4e81b53f487bed41a324. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  83. ↑ "Chip Quik – SMD Removal Kit (Chip Quik Alloy 2.5ft, flux, alcohol pads) lead-free". http://www.chipquik.com/store/product_info.php?products_id=220001. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 "KappTec". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tec-solder.php. Retrieved 23 October 2012. 
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Kapp Cad/Zinc
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 "KappTecZ". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc.. http://www.kappalloy.com/tecz-solder.php. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 "KappRad". Kapp Alloy & Wire, Inc. http://www.kappalloy.com/kapprad-solder.php. Retrieved 25 October 2012. 
  88. ↑ Soft Solders. www.cupalloys.co.uk (2009-01-20). Retrieved 2010-07-06.
  89. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy® 238 Sn-Au Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ec6a4e98e2294ead8788107da410c9d8. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "Indium Corporation Global Solder Supplier Electronics Assembly Materials". http://www.indium.com/_dynamo/download.php?docid=298. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  91. ↑ "Chip Scale Review Magazine". Chipscalereview.com. 2004-04-20. http://www.chipscalereview.com/issues/1004/article.php?type=feature&article=f3. Retrieved 2010-03-31. 
  92. ↑ "High-Temperature Gold Solder & Braze Materials". Indium Corporation. http://www.indium.com/gold/files/2010/12/98217.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  93. ↑ "Indium Corp. Indalloy 184 Gold Solder Alloy". http://www.matweb.com/search/DataSheet.aspx?MatGUID=ac3061509fca4befa1191973be39cd62. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  94. ↑ T.Q. Collier (May–Jun 2008). "Choosing the best bumb for the buck". Advanced Packaging 17 (4): 24. ISSN 1065-0555. https://books.google.com/books?id=71tVjt0QUrEC&pg=PT27. 
  95. ↑ M. Burda (2015). "Soldering of carbon materials using transition metal rich alloys". ACS Nano 9 (8): 8099–107. doi:10.1021/acsnano.5b02176. PMID 26256042. 
  96. ↑ "Technical Data Sheet, Cametics C-Solder active soldering alloy". http://www.cametics.com/resources/upload/data%20sheets/Cametics%20C-SOLDER%20Technical%20data%20sheet%20-%20August%202016.pdf. Retrieved 27 March 2018. 
  97. ↑ Nan Jiang (2019). "Reliability issues of lead-free solder joints in electronic devices". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 20 (1): 876–901. doi:10.1080/14686996.2019.1640072. PMID 31528239. Bibcode: 2019STAdM..20..876J.  open access
  98. ↑ "Thermal Properties of Metals, Conductivity, Thermal Expansion, Specific Heat – Engineers Edge". http://www.engineersedge.com/properties_of_metals.htm. Retrieved 20 July 2016. 
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 "Database for Solder Properties with Emphasis on New Lead-free Solders". metallurgy.nist.gov. 2012-07-10. http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/solder/NIST_LeadfreeSolder_v4.pdf. Retrieved 2013-06-08. 

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