Earth:Reforestation in Nigeria

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Forest nursery located in the compound of the Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta

Reforestation in Nigeria employs both natural and artificial methods. Reforestation involves the deliberate planting of trees and restoring forested areas that have been depleted or destroyed. It involves a planned restocking of the forest to ensure sustainable supply of timber and other forest products.[1][2] Reforestation, in essence, involves replenishing forests to guarantee a consistent and sustainable supply of timber and various other forest resources. This objective can be accomplished through either natural regeneration techniques or artificial regeneration methods.[1] Both of these approaches have been utilized in the reforestation efforts within Nigeria's forests.[1] At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons.[1] Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means.[1]

Background

Reforestation, generally, has many advantages. Equatorial forests, such as those in Nigeria, are often biodiverse ecosystems that support various flora and fauna, promoting ecological balance. Forests play a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and act as carbon sinks. Sequestering carbon reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Reforestation helps prevent erosion by stabilizing soil, reducing runoff, and promoting humus production from organic matter in situ. Forests play a vital role in regulating water cycles and maintaining healthy Nigerian watersheds. Reforestation helps protect water sources, improves water quality, and reduces the risk of flooding, benefiting both urban and rural communities. Reforestation and afforestation promotes the sustainable management of forest resources, including timber, non-timber forest products, and medicinal plants.[3]

History

Planting of trees

Early attempt at reforestation was based on the tropical shelterwood system of forest regeneration which did not yield the desired result. This forced the Nigerian government to switch over to the artificial regeneration through the establishment of forest plantation in the country. The choice of plants for the plantations were based on industrial needs and growth rate of the plants. As a result, the tropical hardwood such as Milicia excelsa and Antiaris africana were shoved aside and replace with exotic and fast growing species like Tectona grandis, eucalyptus, pines, and Gmelina arborea. Tectona grandis and eucalyptus were preferred because of their straight poles and hardness, which make them fantastic for use as electric transmission poles, while Gmelina and pine were preferred for pulp production, which is used in the manufacture of newsprint and paper.[4]

In 1997, Nigeria's areas of estimated forest plantation was 150,000 hectares. Between 1970 and 1984, 82,434 hectares of plantation were established.[5] By 1998, Nigeria has 196,000 ha and 704 ha in protected areas outside the forest reserves. Between 1985 and 2005, three percent of Nigeria's forest reserves were plantations.[4] In 2010, Nigeria had a total plantation area of 382,000 ha. Gmelina and teak make up about 44 percent of the total trees in the plantation.[6]

At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons. Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means.[1]

During the implementation of the Timber Stand Improvement (TSS) initiative, a concurrent endeavor emerged, wherein select colonial forest officers ventured into pioneering trials of artificial regeneration within the confines of Nigeria's moist forest zone. In the year 1930, this distinctive initiative was spearheaded by J. D. Kennedy at Sapoba in Edo State and D. MacGregor at Olokemeji in Oyo State. Notably, these innovative trials encompassed the cultivation of both indigenous and exotic tree species and were meticulously executed within the structured framework of the Taungya Farming System.[1]

Environmental Contex

The environmental context refers to the general state and conditions of the surroundings within a particular region or area.[7][8][9][10] This encompasses various factors, together with natural resources, ecosystems, climate, and human sports. In Nigeria, the environmental context is various and complicated. It's miles characterized by an extensive range of ecosystems, including rainforests, savannas, wetlands, and coastal areas.[11][12] Nigeria is located in West Africa and has a tropical climate, with a wet season and a dry season.[13]

Deforestation Trends in Nigeria

Deforestation in Nigeria has been a significant environmental issue for several decades.[14][15][16] It is primarily driven by various factors, including:

  1. Agricultural Expansion: The need for land to cultivate crops and rear livestock is a major driver of deforestation.[17][18][19] Small-scale subsistence farming as well as large-scale commercial agriculture contribute to this trend.
  2. Logging and Timber Industry: The demand for timber and wood products, both domestically and internationally, leads to extensive logging activities.[20][21][22] This is often done unsustainably, leading to the degradation of forested areas.
  3. Infrastructure Development: Construction of roads, urban expansion, and other infrastructural developments often require clearing large areas of forest.[23]
  4. Mining Activities: Extractive industries, such as oil and mining, can result in the destruction of forests.[24][25][26]
  5. Population Growth and Urbanization: The rapid increase in population and urbanization leads to increased demand for housing and services, which can put pressure on forested areas.[27][28][29]

Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystems

  1. Loss of Biodiversity: Deforestation in Nigeria leads to the loss of numerous plant and animal species.[30][31][32] Forests are incredibly biodiverse, and when they are cleared, many species lose their habitats and are at risk of extinction.
  2. Disruption of Ecosystems: Forests play a crucial role in maintaining a balance within ecosystems.[33] Their removal can disrupt the delicate relationships between plants, animals, and microorganisms.
  3. Soil Erosion and Degradation: Tree roots help hold soil in place, preventing erosion. Deforestation can lead to increased soil erosion, reducing soil fertility, and impacting agricultural productivity.[34]
  4. Climate Regulation: Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[35][36][37] When trees are cut down, this stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

Climate Change

Deforestation contributes significantly to climate change.[38][39] When trees are removed, the carbon stored in them is released as carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas.[40] This contributes to the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate disruptions.

Reforestation as a Mitigation Strategy

Reforestation involves the replanting of trees in areas that have been previously deforested. It is a crucial strategy to mitigate the impacts of deforestation. Here are some key points regarding reforestation:

  1. Carbon Sequestration: Reforestation helps to sequester carbon from the atmosphere, reducing greenhouse gas concentrations.[41]
  2. Habitat Restoration: It provides habitats for a wide range of species, helping to restore biodiversity.[42]
  3. Soil Protection: Trees help stabilize soil, preventing erosion and maintaining soil fertility.[43][44]
  4. Water Regulation: Forests play a vital role in regulating water flow in rivers and streams, reducing the risk of floods and ensuring a steady water supply.
  5. Community Benefits: Reforestation can provide economic opportunities for communities through sustainable forestry practices, as well as supporting ecotourism.
  6. Climate Resilience: Well-planned reforestation efforts can enhance the resilience of ecosystems and communities to the impacts of climate change.

Current Practice in Reforesting Nigeria’s Forest Estate

The historical trajectory of deforestation in Nigeria has exhibited a persistent upward trend since the inception of organized forestry development in 1906.[1] During this period, both natural and artificial reforestation methods were not overlooked, although a significant proportion of initial plantings occurred on experimental and trial plots situated within forest reserves.[1]

The transition from the Tropical Shelterwood System, which proved ineffective in forest regeneration, prompted early foresters to adopt artificial regeneration practices through the establishment of forest plantations across the nation. These plantations, as previously mentioned, encompassed a diverse array of both indigenous and exotic tree species, primarily selected based on their suitability for industrial purposes and their rapid growth characteristics.[1]

The imperative of introducing exotic and fast-growing tree species into plantation development in Nigeria emerged due to the prolonged maturation period observed in tropical hardwoods such as Milicia excelsa and Antiaris africana, which typically spans 60 to 80 years.[1] Notable exotic species were incorporated into the forestry landscape, including Tectona grandis and various Eucalyptus species, primarily on account of their straight boles and hardness. These attributes rendered them well-suited for applications such as electricity transmission line infrastructure.[1]

A glimmer of optimism shines on the four core Niger Delta States, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers, through the ongoing Niger Delta Biodiversity Project, which was initiated in 2013 within the region. The Community Biodiversity Action Plan represents a dedicated environmental restoration initiative.[1] In collaboration with the Federal Government of Nigeria, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have embraced the Community Biodiversity Action Plan (CBAP) as a comprehensive strategy to address the pressing issues of deforestation and the consequential loss of biodiversity within the rural communities of the Niger Delta.[1]

Techniques

One of the major problems facing Nigerian forests is the shifting-cultivation method of farming, which depletes forests. Shifting cultivation is a method of farming in which a farmer relocates his farm to another place after a period of about three years, as a result of decline in crop yield. The row cropping system may be an alternative to shifting cultivation. The row-cropping method involves a compromise between row cropping and forestry. It involves the growing of food crops and forest crops together, as long as the forest crops allow sunlight to penetrate and reach the food crops. By this system, the land will be in continuous production, providing income to farmers and at the same time preserve the ecosystem.[45]

Challenges and Considerations for Reforestation in Nigeria

However, reforestation initiatives in Nigeria faces many obstacles. Among these challenges are inability of the country to maintain basic standard of acquiring regular and up-to-date information on its forest reserves. Most of the information used in making decision on Nigerian forests are based on obsolete information and extrapolation from very old data.[46] In many states, for a period of 10 years (2005–2015), there was low level of government patronage on forest activities, as a result of lack of funds and non-functioning of pulp and paper industry, for which the government oversight was established.[5] Nigerian government has made minimal investment in forestry management due to budgetary limitations.[47]

  1. Land Tenure and Ownership: Determining land rights and ownership can be complex, as multiple stakeholders may have claims to forested areas. Clearing up land tenure issues is essential for successful reforestation efforts.
  2. Species Selection and Biodiversity: It's important to choose tree species that are native or well-suited to the local ecosystem. This promotes biodiversity and ensures that the newly planted trees can thrive.
  3. Community Engagement and Participation: Engaging local communities in the reforestation process is crucial. They should be involved in planning, implementation, and management to ensure long-term success.
  4. Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing a robust monitoring and evaluation system helps track the progress of reforestation efforts, including survival rates of planted trees, biodiversity recovery, and carbon sequestration.
  5. Sustainable Forest Management: Reforestation efforts should be part of a broader strategy for sustainable forest management. This includes practices like selective logging, agroforestry, and fire prevention.

See also

  • Deforestation in Nigeria
  • Fuel wood utilization in Nigeria
  • Environmental issues in the Niger Delta

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Akpan-ebe, Isidore Nelson (2017). "Reforestation in Nigeria: History, current practice and future perspectives". Reforesta 3 (3): 105–115. doi:10.21750/REFOR.3.09.33. ISSN 2466-4367. https://journal.reforestationchallenges.org/index.php/REFOR/article/view/52.   This article incorporates text available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  2. ↑ Ngounou, Boris (15 September 2021). "NIGERIA: Kano State launches a one million tree reforestation campaign | Afrik 21". https://www.afrik21.africa/en/nigeria-kano-state-launches-a-one-million-tree-reforestation-campaign/#:~:text=Nigeria%20has%20embarked%20on%20a%20massive%20national%20reforestation,is%20aimed%20at%20increasing%20carbon%20sinks%20in%20Nigeria.. 
  3. ↑ Park, Chris; Allaby, Michael (2017). "Afforestation". A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation. Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/acref/9780191826320.001.0001. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Akpan-Ebe, Isidore N. (2017). "Reforestation in Nigeria: History, current practice and future perspectives.". Reforesta 3 (3): 105–115. doi:10.21750/REFOR.3.09.33. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Umeh, L.I.C. (2005). "Trends and impact of forest development in Nigeria: Lessons and prospects. In Popola I., Mfon P., and Oni, P.I (eds.). Sustainable forest management in Nigeria. Lessons & prospects.". Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of FAN, Kaduna, Nigeria.. 
  6. ↑ FAO (2010). Global forest resources assessment 2010 country report. 
  7. ↑ Hughes, Steve (2012-04-26). "Environmental justice: concepts, evidence and politics". Food Security 4 (2): 325–327. doi:10.1007/s12571-012-0193-0. ISSN 1876-4517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0193-0. 
  8. ↑ Gaffikin, Frank; Morrissey, Mike (2011-02-10). Planning in Divided Cities: Collaborative Shaping of Contested Space. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781444393200. ISBN 978-1-4051-9218-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781444393200. 
  9. ↑ Bosserman, Robert W. (April 1981). "Kenneth A. Dahlberg: Beyond the Green Revolution: The Ecology and Politics of Global Agricultural Development. New York: Plenum Press, 1979, 256 pp". Behavioral Science 26 (2): 180–181. doi:10.1002/bs.3830260212. ISSN 0005-7940. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830260212. 
  10. ↑ Burnell, Peter; Randall, Vicky; Rakner, Lise, eds (September 2017). "Politics in the Developing World". Politics Trove. doi:10.1093/hepl/9780198737438.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-873743-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198737438.001.0001. 
  11. ↑ Gbadegesin, Adeniyi; Adesina, Francis; Orimoogunje, Oluwagbenga; Oderinde, Folasade (2023), "Vegetation and Human Impact", Landscapes and Landforms of Nigeria, World Geomorphological Landscapes (Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland): pp. 39–52, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-17972-3_3, ISBN 978-3-031-17971-6, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17972-3_3, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  12. ↑ Fadairo, Olushola; Olajuyigbe, Samuel; Adelakun, Olufolake; Osayomi, Tolulope (2022-08-20). "Drivers of vulnerability to climate change and adaptive responses of forest-edge farming households in major agro-ecological zones of Nigeria". GeoJournal 88 (2): 2153–2170. doi:10.1007/s10708-022-10741-1. ISSN 1572-9893. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10741-1. 
  13. ↑ Akinwumiju, Akinola S.; Ajisafe, Tesleem; Adelodun, Adedeji A. (2021-04-19). "Airborne Particulate Matter Pollution in Akure Metro City, Southwestern Nigeria, West Africa: Attribution and Meteorological Influence". Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis 5 (1): 11. doi:10.1007/s41651-021-00079-6. ISSN 2509-8810. Bibcode: 2021JGSA....5...11A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41651-021-00079-6. 
  14. ↑ AHMED, Yusuf Alapata; ALIYU, Ismaila (2019-12-31). "Climate Change Induced Challenges on Deforestation: The Needs to Educe Mitigation Measures in Nigeria". Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie 29 (2): 64–76. doi:10.30892/auog.292107-807. ISSN 1221-1273. 
  15. ↑ Omofonmwan, S. I.; Osa-Edoh, G. I (January 2008). "The Challenges of Environmental Problems in Nigeria". Journal of Human Ecology 23 (1): 53–57. doi:10.1080/09709274.2008.11906054. ISSN 0970-9274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2008.11906054. 
  16. ↑ Oladosu, G.A.; Adegbulugbe, A.O. (June 1994). "Nigeria's household energy sector". Energy Policy 22 (6): 538–549. doi:10.1016/0301-4215(94)90073-6. ISSN 0301-4215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-4215(94)90073-6. 
  17. ↑ Ihemezie, Eberechukwu Johnpaul; Dallimer, Martin (2021-10-27). "Stakeholders' Perceptions on Agricultural Land-Use Change, and Associated Factors, in Nigeria". Environments 8 (11): 113. doi:10.3390/environments8110113. ISSN 2076-3298. 
  18. ↑ Fasona, Mayowa; Adeonipekun, Peter Adegbenga; Agboola, Oludare; Akintuyi, Akinlabi; Bello, Adedoyin; Ogundipe, Oluwatoyin; Soneye, Alabi; Omojola, Ademola (2018), "Drivers of Deforestation and Land-Use Change in Southwest Nigeria", Handbook of Climate Change Resilience (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 1–24, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71025-9_139-1, ISBN 978-3-319-71025-9, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71025-9_139-1, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  19. ↑ Kleemann, Janina; Baysal, Gülendam; Bulley, Henry N.N.; Fürst, Christine (July 2017). "Assessing driving forces of land use and land cover change by a mixed-method approach in north-eastern Ghana, West Africa". Journal of Environmental Management 196: 411–442. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.01.053. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 28334680. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.01.053. 
  20. ↑ Humphreys, David (2016-07-29), "Forest crimes and the international trade in illegally logged timber", Handbook of Transnational Environmental Crime (Edward Elgar Publishing), doi:10.4337/9781783476237.00018, ISBN 978-1-78347-623-7, http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781783476237.00018, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  21. ↑ Chamshama, S.A.O; Nwonwu, F.O.C; Lundgren, B; Kowero, G.S (2009-11-25). "Plantation Forestry in Sub Saharan Africa: Silvicultural, Ecological and Economic Aspects". Discovery and Innovation 21 (3). doi:10.4314/dai.v21i3.48210. ISSN 1015-079X. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/dai.v21i3.48210. 
  22. ↑ "The consumer-country response to illegal logging and the international trade in illegal timber", Forests and Globalization (Routledge): pp. 60–76, 2014-09-19, doi:10.4324/9781315766539-11, ISBN 9781315766539, http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315766539-11, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  23. ↑ Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Fikadu, Genetu; Tsunekawa, Atsushi; Tsubo, Mitsuru; Meshesha, Derege Tsegaye (May 2012). "The dynamics of urban expansion and its impacts on land use/land cover change and small-scale farmers living near the urban fringe: A case study of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia". Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2): 149–157. doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.02.016. ISSN 0169-2046. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.02.016. 
  24. ↑ Ranängen, Helena; Zobel, Thomas (December 2014). "Revisiting the 'how' of corporate social responsibility in extractive industries and forestry". Journal of Cleaner Production 84: 299–312. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.020. ISSN 0959-6526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.020. 
  25. ↑ Ojakorotu, Victor; Kamidza, Richard; Eesuola, Segun (2018-04-26). "Oil wealth paradox and its implication for sustainable development in Angola and Nigeria". Journal of African Foreign Affairs 5 (1): 85–106. doi:10.31920/2056-5658/2018/v5n1a5. ISSN 2056-564X. http://dx.doi.org/10.31920/2056-5658/2018/v5n1a5. 
  26. ↑ "Development implications for host countries", World Investment Report 2007, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) World Investment Report (WIR) (UN): pp. 129–156, 2007-10-16, doi:10.18356/f89f1d49-en, ISBN 978-92-1-156018-3, http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/f89f1d49-en, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  27. ↑ Braimoh, Ademola K.; Onishi, Takashi (April 2007). "Spatial determinants of urban land use change in Lagos, Nigeria". Land Use Policy 24 (2): 502–515. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2006.09.001. ISSN 0264-8377. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2006.09.001. 
  28. ↑ Fuwape, J.A; Onyekwelu, J.C; Adekunle, V.A.J (December 2001). "Biomass equations and estimation for Gmelina arborea and Nauclea diderrichii stands in Akure forest reserve". Biomass and Bioenergy 21 (6): 401–405. doi:10.1016/s0961-9534(01)00036-8. ISSN 0961-9534. Bibcode: 2001BmBe...21..401F. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0961-9534(01)00036-8. 
  29. ↑ Oyetunji, P.O.; Ibitoye, O.S.; Akinyemi, G.O.; Fadele, O.A.; Oyediji, O.T. (2020-09-09). "The Effects of Population Growth on Deforestation in Nigeria: 1991 – 2016". Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management 24 (8): 1329–1334. doi:10.4314/jasem.v24i8.4. ISSN 2659-1502. 
  30. ↑ Numbere, Aroloye O. (2021-02-25). "Natural seedling recruitment and regeneration in deforested and sand-filled Mangrove forest at Eagle Island, Niger Delta, Nigeria". Ecology and Evolution 11 (7): 3148–3158. doi:10.1002/ece3.7262. ISSN 2045-7758. PMID 33841774. PMC 8019020. Bibcode: 2021EcoEv..11.3148N. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.7262. 
  31. ↑ Adejumo, Akintoye Victor; Adejumo, Opeyemi Oluwabunmi (2014-02-01). "Prospects for Achieving Sustainable Development Through the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria.". European Journal of Sustainable Development 3 (1): 33–46. doi:10.14207/ejsd.2014.v3n1p33. ISSN 2239-5938. 
  32. ↑ Bodo, Tombari; Gimah, Batombari Gbidum; Seomoni, Kemetonye Joy (2021-05-11). "Deforestation and Habitat Loss: Human Causes, Consequences and Possible Solutions". Journal of Geographical Research 4 (2): 22–30. doi:10.30564/jgr.v4i2.3059. ISSN 2630-5070. 
  33. ↑ Alongi, Daniel M. (2009). The Energetics of Mangrove Forests. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4271-3. ISBN 978-1-4020-4270-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4271-3. 
  34. ↑ "Water conservation", Conservation and Improvement of Sloping Lands, Volume 3 (CRC Press): pp. 133–160, 2011-02-01, doi:10.1201/9781439848739-16, ISBN 9780429070006, http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781439848739-16, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  35. ↑ Omokhua, GE; Koyejo, AO (2009-06-05). "Impact Of Deforestation On Ecosystem: A Case Study Of The Fresh Water Swamp Forest In Onne, Niger Delta Region, Nigeria". Journal of Agriculture and Social Research (JASR) 8 (2). doi:10.4314/jasr.v8i2.43349. ISSN 1595-7470. 
  36. ↑ Aweh, David Suru; Olotu, Yahaya; Ibrahim, Rasheed; Izah, Linda Ngozi; John, Arohunmolase Adeboye (2023-04-06). "Assessment of deforestation impacts on carbon sequestration in Edo State south Southern Nigeria". Technology Audit and Production Reserves 2 (3(70)): 18–24. doi:10.15587/2706-5448.2023.276637. ISSN 2706-5448. 
  37. ↑ Ndakatu, MA; Yakubu, UP; Yusuf, MK (2011-03-28). "Evaluation of some factors of fish farming and management systems in Kuje Area Council of Federal Capital territory, Abuja, Nigeria". Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and the Social Sciences 8 (1). doi:10.4314/joafss.v8i1.64824. ISSN 1597-0906. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/joafss.v8i1.64824. 
  38. ↑ Leon, Marcelo; Cornejo, Gino; Calderón, Micaela; González-Carrión, Erika; Florez, Hector (2022-09-09). "Effect of Deforestation on Climate Change: A Co-Integration and Causality Approach with Time Series". Sustainability 14 (18): 11303. doi:10.3390/su141811303. ISSN 2071-1050. 
  39. ↑ Pandve, HarshalT; Fernandez, Kevin; Khismatrao, Deepak; Chawla, PS; Singru, SamirA; Pawar, Sangita (2011). "Assessment of awareness regarding climate change in an urban community". Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 15 (3): 109–112. doi:10.4103/0019-5278.93200. ISSN 0019-5278. PMID 22412288. 
  40. ↑ Scharenbroch, B. C. (2011-10-04), "Urban Trees for Carbon Sequestration", Carbon Sequestration in Urban Ecosystems (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands): pp. 121–138, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2366-5_6, ISBN 978-94-007-2365-8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2366-5_6, retrieved 2023-10-09 
  41. ↑ Gunathilaka, L.F.D.Z (2013). The Impact of Green House Gas Emission on Corporate Climate Policies in Apparel Sector Organizations in Sri Lanka (Thesis). University of Sri Jayewardenepura. doi:10.31357/fmscmst.2013.00278.
  42. ↑ Lale, N. E. S (2020-09-01). "Biodiversity and Conservation in Entomology in the 21st Century: An Overview". Nigerian Journal of Entomology 36 (1): 1–10. doi:10.36108/nje/0202/63.01.10. ISSN 0331-0094. 
  43. ↑ Rees, R. M., ed (2000-12-11). Sustainable management of soil organic matter. UK: CABI Publishing. doi:10.1079/9780851994659.0000. ISBN 978-0-85199-465-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9780851994659.0000. 
  44. ↑ Morgan, Roy P.C.; Rickson, R.J. (2003-09-02). Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control: A Bioengineering Approach. doi:10.4324/9780203362136. ISBN 9780203362136. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203362136. 
  45. ↑ Etuk, L.A; Collins, J.B (1976). "Suggested scheme for reforestation and cropping of abandoned farmlands in Nigeria". Journal of Agro Economic Educatiion 5: 41–43. doi:10.2134/jae.1976.0041. https://www.crops.org/files/publications/jnrlse/pdfs/jnr005/005-01-0041.pdf. 
  46. ↑ Akindele, S.O. (2012). "Status of forest cover in Nigeria.". Proceedings of the Third National Conference of the Forest and Forest Products Society. 3rd – 6th April, 2012.. 
  47. ↑ Akpan-Ebe, I. N. (2016). UNDP-GEF Niger Delta Biodiversity Project: Consultant's Report.. pp. 73. 



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