Earth:Taupō Volcanic Zone

From HandWiki
Short description: Active volcanic zone in New Zealand

Taupō Volcanic Zone
Taupo.Volcanic.Zone.North.Island.NZ.JPG
Volcano and historic lake/caldera locations in the Taupō Volcanic Zone. The distance between the town of Rotorua and the town of Taupō is 80 km. (White Island is not shown.)
Map showing the location of Taupō Volcanic Zone
Map showing the location of Taupō Volcanic Zone
Taupō Volcanic Zone
Location of Taupō Volcanic Zone in New Zealand
Map showing the location of Taupō Volcanic Zone
Map showing the location of Taupō Volcanic Zone
Taupō Volcanic Zone
Taupō Volcanic Zone (North Island)
LocationNorth Island
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 38°40′00″S 176°01′00″E / 38.6666667°S 176.0166667°E / -38.6666667; 176.0166667
Highest point
 – elevation
 – coordinates		Mount Ruapehu
2,797 m (9,177 ft)
[ ⚑ ] 39°17′S 175°34′E / 39.283°S 175.567°E / -39.283; 175.567
Formed byVolcanic action
Geologysee Taupō Rift
AgeMiocene - Holocene

The Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) is a volcanic area in the North Island of New Zealand that has been active for at least the past two million years and is still highly active. Mount Ruapehu marks its south-western end and the zone runs north-eastward through the Taupō and Rotorua areas and offshore into the Bay of Plenty. It is part of the larger Central Volcanic Region that extends further westward through the western Bay of Plenty to the eastern side of the Coromandel Peninsula and has been active for four million years.[1] At Taupō the rift volcanic zone is widening east–west at the rate of about 8 mm per year while at Mount Ruapehu it is only 2–4 mm per year but this increases at the north eastern end at the Bay of Plenty coast to 10–15 mm per year.[2] It is named after Lake Taupō, the flooded caldera of the largest volcano in the zone, the Taupō Volcano and contains a large central volcanic plateau as well as other landforms associated with its containing tectonic intra-arc continental Taupō Rift.

Activity

Mount Ngauruhoe

last1=Kósik| first1=Szabolcs| last2=Nemeth| first2=Karoly| last3=Danisik| first3=Martin| last4=Procter| first4=Jonathan| last5=Schmitt| first5=Axel| last6=Friedrichs| first6=Bjarne| last7=Stewart| first7=Robert| date=2021-01-19| title=Shallow subaqueous to emergent intra-caldera silicic volcanism of the Motuoapa Peninsula, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand – New constraints from geologic mapping, sedimentology and zircon geochronology| volume=411| doi=10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107180| journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research| page=107180| s2cid=233771486| url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348594991 }}</ref> Both the Taupō Volcano and the Ōkataina Caldera have had multiple eruptions in the last 25,000 years. The zone's largest eruption since the arrival of Europeans was that of Mount Tarawera (within the Ōkataina Caldera) in 1886, which killed over 100 people. Early Māori would also have been affected by the much larger Kaharoa eruption from Tarawera around 1315 CE.[3][4]

The last major eruption from Lake Taupō, the Hatepe eruption, occurred in 232 CE.[5] It is believed to have first emptied the lake, then followed that feat with a pyroclastic flow that covered about 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi) of land with volcanic ash. A total of 120 km3 (29 cu mi) of material expressed as dense-rock equivalent (DRE) is believed to have been ejected, and over 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of material is estimated to have been ejected in just a few minutes. The date of this activity was previously thought to be 186 AD as the ash expulsion was thought to be sufficiently large to turn the sky red over Rome and China (as documented in Hou Han Shu), but this has since been disproven.[5]

Whakaari / White Island had a major, edifice failure collapse of its volcano dated to 946 BCE ± 52 years. It has been suggested that this was the cause of the tsunami tens of metres tall that went up to 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) inland in the Bay of Plenty at about this time. Although significant tsunami's can be associated with volcanic eruptions, it is unknown if the cause was a relatively small eruption of Whakaari or another cause such as a large local earthquake[6]

Taupō erupted an estimated 1,170 km3 (280 cu mi) of DRE material in its Oruanui eruption 25,580 years ago.[7] This was Earth's most recent eruption reaching VEI-8, the highest level on the Volcanic Explosivity Index.

The Rotorua caldera has been dormant longer, with its main eruption occurring about 225,000 years ago, although lava dome extrusion has occurred within the last 25,000 years.[8][9]

Extent and geological context

Whakaari / White Island
Lady Knox Geyser, Waiotapu geothermal area

The Taupō volcanic zone is approximately 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 kilometres (31 mi) wide. Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while Whakaari / White Island is considered its northeastern limit.[10]

It forms a southern portion of the active Lau-Havre-Taupō back-arc basin, which lies behind the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone.[11][12] Mayor Island and Mount Taranaki are recently active back arc volcanoes on the New Zealand extension of this arc. Mayor Island / Tūhua is the northern-most shield volcano adjacent to the New Zealand coast, and is believed to have been active in the last 1000 years.[13] It is formed from rhyolite magma.[14] It has a quite complex eruptive history but only with one definite significant Plinian eruption.[13] Mount Taranaki is an andesite cone and the most recent of four Taranaki volcanoes about 140 km (87 mi) west of the Taupō Volcanic Zone.[15]

Within the Taupō volcanic zone, intra-arc extension is expressed as normal faulting within a zone known as the Taupō Rift.[16] Volcanic activity continues to the north-northeast, along the line of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, through several undersea volcanoes in the South Kermadec Ridge Seamounts, then shifts eastward to the parallel volcanic arc of the Kermadec Islands and Tonga. Although the back-arc basin continues to propagate to the southwest, with the South Wanganui Basin forming an initial back-arc basin, volcanic activity has not yet begun in this region.[17]

South of Kaikōura the plate boundary changes to a transform boundary with oblique continental collision uplifting the Southern Alps in the South Island. A subduction zone reappears southwest of Fiordland, at the southwestern corner of the South Island, although here the subduction is in the opposite direction. Solander Island / Hautere is an extinct volcano associated with this subduction zone, and the only one that protrudes above the sea.

<timeline> ImageSize = width:370 height:1000 PlotArea = right:50 top:10 left:50 bottom:10 Dateformat = dd/mm/yyyy # European date format Period = from:01/01/1835 till:01/01/2035 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1835 Colors = 

 id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85)

BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = 

 width:15 color:white
 bar:test from:01/01/1835 till:01/01/2035 #

PlotData = 

 at:01/01/1835 shift:(100,-5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: Gray text indicates suspected data inaccuracy 
 at:01/01/1835 shift:(265,-5) textcolor:red text: 5 4 3 2 1
 at:01/01/2035 shift:(20,-4) text: Recent eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone
 at:01/01/2033 shift:(240,-4) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index
 at:01/01/2031 shift:(265,-4) textcolor:red text: 5 4 3 2 1
 at:01/01/2033 shift:(30,-4) textcolor:tan2 text: NOTE - most E.I. from https://volcano.si.edu
 at:01/01/2031 shift:(30,-4) textcolor:tan2 text: Corrected E.I. from https://www.gns.cri.nz
 at:01/06/1836 shift:(10,-5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1836 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/06/1836 mark:(line,pink)
 at:01/01/1836 shift:(10,5) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1836 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/01/1836 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/02/1839 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1839 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/02/1839 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/06/1841 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1841 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/06/1841 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/10/1844 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1844 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/10/1844 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/06/1855 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1855 Te Māri
 bar:test at:01/06/1855 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/06/1856 shift:(10,-7) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1856 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/06/1856 mark:(line,pink)
 at:01/02/1857 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1857 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/02/1857 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:21/04/1859 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21 Apr 1859 Tongariro
 bar:test at:21/04/1859 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:16/05/1861 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1861 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:16/05/1861 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/01/1862 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1862 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/01/1862 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/06/1863 shift:(10,-4) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1863 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/06/1863 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/12/1864 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1864 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/12/1864 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/01/1869 shift:(190,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1869 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/01/1869 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/08/1869 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1869 Te Māri
 bar:test at:01/08/1869 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/04/1870 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1870 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/04/1870 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/10/1875 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1 Oct 1875 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/10/1875 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/09/1878 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 1 Sep 1878 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/09/1878 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:06/07/1881 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 6 Jul 1881 Tongariro
 bar:test at:06/07/1881 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:25/04/1883 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Apr 1883 Tongariro
 bar:test at:25/04/1883 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/01/1885 shift:(100,-11) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: Jan 1885 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/01/1885 mark:(line,pink)
 at:01/06/1885 shift:(100,-6) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1885 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/06/1885 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/10/1885 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1885 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/10/1885 mark:(line,pink)
 at:01/06/1886 shift:(190,-8) fontsize:XS text: June 1886 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/06/1886 mark:(line,magenta) 
 at:10/06/1886 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 10 Jun 1886 Tarawera
 bar:test at:10/06/1886 mark:(line,orange)
 at:16/09/1886 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 16 Sep 1886 Whakaari
 bar:test at:16/09/1886 mark:(line,pink)
 at:01/05/1889 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1 May 1889 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/05/1889 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/03/1890 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1890 Tongariro
 bar:test at:01/03/1890 mark:(line,magenta)   
 at:01/11/1892 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1892 Te Māri
 bar:test at:01/11/1892 mark:(line,magenta)   
 at:30/11/1892 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 30 Nov 1892 Te Māri
 bar:test at:30/11/1892 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:10/03/1895 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 10 Mar 1895 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:10/03/1895 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/06/1896 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1896 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/06/1896 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/11/1896 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1896 Te Māri
 bar:test at:01/11/1896 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/06/1897 shift:(100,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1897 Te Māri 
 bar:test at:01/06/1897 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/01/1898 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1898 Te Māri 
 bar:test at:01/01/1898 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:01/01/1900 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1900 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/01/1900 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/06/1903 shift:(100,-8) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1903 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/06/1903 mark:(line,red)
 at:22/11/1904 shift:(10,-12) fontsize:XS text: 22 Nov 1904 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:22/11/1904 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/06/1905 shift:(190,-8) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1905 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/06/1905 mark:(line,coral)
 at:18/02/1905 shift:(100,-7) fontsize:XS text: 18 Feb 1905 Okataina
 bar:test at:18/02/1905 mark:(line,orange)
 at:17/06/1905 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 17 Jun 1905 Okataina
 bar:test at:17/06/1905 mark:(line,orange)
 at:21/02/1906 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 21 Feb 1906 Okataina
 bar:test at:21/02/1906 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/03/1906 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1906 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/03/1906 mark:(line,coral)
 at:15/03/1906 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 15 Mar 1906 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:15/03/1906 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/02/1907 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1907 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/02/1907 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/11/1907 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1907 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/11/1907 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/10/1908 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text: 1 Oct 1908 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/10/1908 mark:(line,orange)
 at:28/11/1908 shift:(190,-4) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 28 Nov 1908 Whakaari
 bar:test at:28/11/1908 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:01/03/1909 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: Mar 1909 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/03/1909 mark:(line,coral)
 at:13/05/1909 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 13 May 1909 Whakaari
 bar:test at:13/05/1909 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:01/01/1910 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1910 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/01/1910 mark:(line,coral)
 at:24/07/1910  shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 24 Jul 1910 Okataina
 bar:test at:24/07/1910 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/10/1910 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1910 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/10/1910 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/04/1912 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1912 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/04/1912 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/01/1913 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1913 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/01/1913 mark:(line,coral)
 at:27/01/1913 shift:(100,-6) fontsize:XS text: 27 Jan 1913 Okataina
 bar:test at:27/01/1913 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/05/1913 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: May 1913 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/05/1913 mark:(line,coral)
 at:28/01/1914 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 28 Jan 1914 Okataina
 bar:test at:28/01/1914 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/09/1914 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1914 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/09/1914 mark:(line,coral)
 at:04/02/1915 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4 Feb 1915 Okataina
 bar:test at:04/02/1915 mark:(line,orange)
 at:05/11/1915 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 5 Nov 1915 Okataina
 bar:test at:05/11/1915 mark:(line,orange)
 at:24/03/1917 shift:(10,-3) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1918 Okataina
 bar:test at:24/03/1917 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/10/1917 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1917 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/10/1917 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/09/1918 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 1918 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/09/1918 mark:(line,orange)
 at:29/06/1918 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 29 Jun 1918 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:29/06/1918 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/10/1921 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1921 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/10/1921 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/06/1922 shift:(190,-6) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1922 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/06/1922 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:01/09/1924 shift:(100,-12) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Okataina
 bar:test at:01/09/1924 mark:(line,orange)
 at:01/03/1924 shift:(10,-7) fontsize:XS text: 1924 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/03/1924 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:09/01/1924 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 9 Jan 1924 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:09/01/1924 mark:(line,coral)
 at:22/05/1924 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 May 1924 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:22/05/1924 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/10/1924 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1924 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/10/1924 mark:(line,coral)
 at:22/01/1925 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jan 1925 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:22/01/1925 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/11/1925 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: Nov 1925 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/11/1925 mark:(line,coral)
 at:03/02/1926 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 3 Feb 1926 Whakaari
 bar:test at:03/02/1926 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:16/04/1926 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Apr 1926 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:16/04/1926 mark:(line,coral)
 at:17/11/1926  shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 17 Nov 1926 Okataina
 bar:test at:17/11/1926 mark:(line,orange)
 at:21/12/1926 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 21 Dec 1926 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:21/12/1926 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/06/1927 shift:(190,-1) textcolor:tan2 fontsize:XS text: 1927 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/06/1927 mark:(line,coral)
 at:03/03/1928 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 3 Mar 1928 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:03/03/1928 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/07/1928 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: Jul 1928 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/07/1928 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/09/1928 shift:(190,0) fontsize:XS text: 1 Sep 1928 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/09/1928 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:16/03/1930 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 16 Mar 1930 Whakaari
 bar:test at:16/03/1930 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:01/02/1931 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Feb 1931 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/02/1931 mark:(line,coral)
 at:02/04/1933 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 2 Apr 1933 Whakaari
 bar:test at:02/04/1933 mark:(line,pink)	
 at:01/06/1934 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: Jun 1934 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/06/1934 mark:(line,coral)
 at:11/08/1934 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1934 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:11/08/1934 mark:(line,red)
 at:31/12/1934 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1934 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/12/1934 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/12/1934 shift:(190,-1) fontsize:XS text: Dec 1934 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/12/1934 mark:(line,red)
 at:09/05/1936 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 May 1936 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:09/05/1936 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/01/1937 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1937 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/01/1937 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/08/1939 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: Aug 1939 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/08/1939 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/04/1940 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1940 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/04/1940 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/09/1940 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1940 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/09/1940 mark:(line,coral)
 at:10/08/1942 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 10 Aug 1942 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:10/08/1942 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/10/1944 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: Oct 1944 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/10/1944 mark:(line,red)
 at:08/03/1945 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 8 Mar 1945 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:08/03/1945 mark:(line,red)
 at:02/04/1946 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: Apr 1946 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:02/04/1946 mark:(line,red)
 at:21/11/1946 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 21 Nov 1946 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:21/11/1946 mark:(line,red)
 at:02/01/1947 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Jan 1947 Whakaari
 bar:test at:02/01/1947 mark:(line,pink)
 at:30/04/1948 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 30 Apr 1948 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:30/04/1948 mark:(line,coral)
 at:01/05/1948 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 1 May 1948 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/05/1948 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/09/1948 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: Sep 1948 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/09/1948 mark:(line,coral)
 at:09/02/1949 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 9 Feb 1949 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:09/02/1949 mark:(line,coral)
 at:16/06/1950 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 June 1950 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:16/06/1950 mark:(line,coral)
 at:26/06/1950 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 26 Jun 1950 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:26/06/1950 mark:(line,red)
 at:19/03/1951 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 19 Mar 1951 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:19/03/1951 mark:(line,red)
 at:16/05/1951 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1951 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:16/05/1951  mark:(line,coral)
 at:16/06/1951 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jun 1951 Okataina
 bar:test at:16/06/1951 mark:(line,orange)
 at:16/07/1952 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jul 1952 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:16/07/1952 mark:(line,red)
 at:29/11/1952 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 29 Nov 1952 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:29/11/1952  mark:(line,coral)
 at:28/12/1953 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 28 Dec 1953 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:28/12/1953   mark:(line,coral)
 at:13/05/1954 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13 May 1954 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:13/05/1954  mark:(line,coral)
 at:16/01/1955 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jan 1955 Whakaari
 bar:test at:16/01/1955 mark:(line,pink)
 at:11/01/1956 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 11 Jan 1956 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:11/01/1956  mark:(line,coral)
 at:18/11/1956 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 18 Nov 1956 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:18/11/1956 mark:(line,red)
 at:11/12/1957 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 11 Dec 1957 Whakaari
 bar:test at:11/12/1957 mark:(line,pink)
 at:05/11/1958 shift:(100,-6) fontsize:XS text: 5 Nov 1958 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:05/11/1958  mark:(line,coral)
 at:16/12/1958 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 Dec 1958 Whakaari
 bar:test at:16/12/1958 mark:(line,pink)
 at:21/05/1959 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 21 May 1959 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:21/05/1959 mark:(line,red)
 at:01/06/1959 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 1 Jun 1959 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:01/06/1959  mark:(line,coral)
 at:14/12/1959 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 14 Dec 1959 Whakaari
 bar:test at:14/12/1959 mark:(line,pink)
 at:24/05/1962 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 24 May 1962 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:24/05/1962  mark:(line,coral)
 at:15/12/1962 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15 Dec 1962 Whakaari
 bar:test at:15/12/1962 mark:(line,pink)
 at:04/04/1966 shift:(190,-7) fontsize:XS text: 4 Apr 1966 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:04/04/1966 mark:(line,red) 
 at:13/11/1966 shift:(100,-10) fontsize:XS text: 13 Nov 1966 Whakaari
 bar:test at:13/11/1966 mark:(line,pink)
 at:22/07/1967 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jul 1967 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:22/07/1967 mark:(line,red) 
 at:27/01/1968 shift:(190,-9) fontsize:XS text: 27 Jan 1968 Whakaari
 bar:test at:27/01/1968 mark:(line,pink)
 at:06/04/1968 shift:(100,-9) fontsize:XS text: 6 Apr 1968 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:06/04/1968 mark:(line,red) 
 at:18/08/1968 shift:(10,-9) fontsize:XS text: 18 Aug 1968 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:18/08/1968  mark:(line,coral)
 at:21/01/1969 shift:(190,-6) fontsize:XS text: 21 Jan 19692 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:21/01/1969  mark:(line,coral)
 at:22/06/1969 shift:(100,-8) fontsize:XS text: 22 Jun 1969 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:22/06/1969 mark:(line,red) 
 at:16/08/1969 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: 16 Aug 1969 Whakaari
 bar:test at:16/08/1969 mark:(line,pink)
 at:30/06/1970 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 30 Jun 1970 Whakaari
 bar:test at:30/06/1970 mark:(line,pink)
 at:16/09/1970 shift:(100,-8) fontsize:XS text: 16 Sep 1970 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:16/09/1970 mark:(line,red) 
 at:03/04/1971 shift:(10,-7) fontsize:XS text: 3 Apr 1971 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:03/04/1971 mark:(line,red) 
 at:09/04/1971 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 Apr 1971 Whakaari
 bar:test at:09/04/1971 mark:(line,pink)
 at:19/07/1971 shift:(100,-5) fontsize:XS text: 19 Jul 1971 Whakaari
 bar:test at:19/07/1971 mark:(line,pink)
 at:19/03/1972 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text: 19 Mar 1972 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:19/03/1972  mark:(line,coral)
 at:22/10/1972 shift:(190,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Oct 1972 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:22/10/1972 mark:(line,red) 
 at:22/11/1972 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 22 Nov 1972 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:22/11/1972 mark:(line,coral)
 at:22/02/1973 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 22 Feb 1973 Okataina
 bar:test at:22/02/1973 mark:(line,orange)
 at:31/10/1973 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 31 Oct 1973 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:31/10/1973 mark:(line,red) 
 at:08/09/1974 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 8 Sep 1974 Whakaari
 bar:test at:08/09/1974 mark:(line,pink)
 at:12/02/1975 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 12 Feb 1975 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:12/02/1975 mark:(line,coral)
 at:24/04/1975 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 24 Apr 1975 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:24/04/1975 mark:(line,red) 
 at:17/10/1975 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 17 Oct 1975 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:17/10/1975 mark:(line,red) 
 at:06/03/1976 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 5 Mar 1976 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:06/03/1976 mark:(line,red) 
 at:23/08/1976 shift:(190,0) fontsize:XS text: 23 Aug 1976 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:23/08/1976 mark:(line,coral)
 at:12/09/1976 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 12 Sep 1976 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:12/09/1976 mark:(line,red) 
 at:18/12/1976 shift:(10,2) fontsize:XS text: 18 Dec 1976 Whakaari
 bar:test at:18/12/1976 mark:(line,pink)
 at:16/07/1977 shift:(190,3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jul 1977 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:16/07/1977 mark:(line,red) 
 at:04/07/1977 shift:(100,4) fontsize:XS text: 4 Jul 1977 Ngauruhoe
 bar:test at:04/07/1977 mark:(line,coral)
 at:23/02/1978 shift:(10,3) fontsize:XS text: 23 Feb 1978 Okataina
 bar:test at:23/02/1978 mark:(line,orange)
 at:30/06/1979 shift:(190,2) fontsize:XS text: 30 Jun 1979 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:30/06/1979 mark:(line,red) 
 at:15/01/1980 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 15 Jan 1980 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:15/01/1980 mark:(line,red) 
 at:18/10/1980 shift:(10,-1) fontsize:XS text: 18 Oct 1980 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:18/10/1980 mark:(line,red) 
 at:16/05/1981 shift:(190,1) fontsize:XS text: 16 May 1981 Okataina
 bar:test at:16/05/1981 mark:(line,orange)
 at:25/10/1981 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 25 Oct 1981 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:25/10/1981 mark:(line,red) 
 at:26/12/1983 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 26 Dec 1983 Whakaari
 bar:test at:26/12/1983 mark:(line,pink)
 at:02/04/1984 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 2 Apr 1984 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:02/04/1984 mark:(line,red) 
 at:25/10/1984 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Oct 1984 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:25/10/1984 mark:(line,red) 
 at:21/05/1985 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 21 May 1985 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:21/05/1985 mark:(line,red) 
 at:15/11/1985 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 15 Nov 1985 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:15/11/1985 mark:(line,red) 
 at:01/02/1986 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 1 Feb 1986 Whakaari
 bar:test at:01/02/1986 mark:(line,pink)
 at:08/02/1986 shift:(10,4) fontsize:XS text: 8 Feb 1986 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:08/02/1986 mark:(line,red) 
 at:24/08/1987 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 24 Aug 1987 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:24/08/1987 mark:(line,red) 
 at:20/03/1988 shift:(100,0) fontsize:XS text: 20 Mar 1988 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:20/03/1988 mark:(line,red) 
 at:08/12/1988 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 8 Dec 1988 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:08/12/1988 mark:(line,red) 
 at:01/07/1989 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 1 Jul 1989 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:01/07/1989 mark:(line,red) 
 at:07/01/1990 shift:(100,1) fontsize:XS text: 7 Jan 1990 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:07/01/1990 mark:(line,red) 
 at:17/06/1990 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text: 17 Jun 1990 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:17/06/1990 mark:(line,red) 
 at:05/07/1991 shift:(190,-2) fontsize:XS text: 5 Jul 1991 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:05/07/1991 mark:(line,red) 
 at:08/02/1992 shift:(100,-1) fontsize:XS text: 8 Feb 1992 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:08/02/1992 mark:(line,red) 
 at:12/02/1994 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 12 Feb 1994 Ruapehu ?
 bar:test at:12/02/1994 mark:(line,red)
 at:11/01/1995 shift:(190,-5) fontsize:XS text: 11 Jan 1995 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:11/01/1995 mark:(line,red)
 at:28/06/1995 shift:(100,-7) fontsize:XS text: 28 Jun 1995 Whakaari
 bar:test at:28/06/1995 mark:(line,pink)
 at:21/03/1996 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 21 Mar 1996 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:21/03/1996 mark:(line,red)
 at:16/06/1996 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 16 Jun 1996 Ruapehu ?
 bar:test at:16/06/1996 mark:(line,red)
 at:09/10/1997 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text: 9 Oct 1997 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:09/10/1997 mark:(line,red)
 at:28/03/1998 shift:(100,-2) fontsize:XS text: 28 Mar 1998 Whakaari
 bar:test at:28/03/1998 mark:(line,pink)
 at:22/08/1998 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text: 22 Aug 1998 Whakaari
 bar:test at:22/08/1998 mark:(line,pink)
 at:07/03/2000 shift:(100,-4) fontsize:XS text: 7 Mar 2000 Whakaari
 bar:test at:07/03/2000 mark:(line,pink)
 at:19/07/2001 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 19 Jul 2001 Whakaari
 bar:test at:19/07/2001 mark:(line,pink)
 at:04/10/2006 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 4 Oct 2007 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:04/10/2006 mark:(line,red)
 at:25/09/2007 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 25 Sep 2007 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:25/09/2007 mark:(line,red)
 at:06/08/2012 shift:(190,-3) fontsize:XS text: 6 Aug 2012 Te Māri
 bar:test at:06/08/2012 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:07/08/2012 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 7 Aug 2012 Whakaari
 bar:test at:07/08/2012 mark:(line,pink)
 at:21/12/2012 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 21 Dec 2012 Te Māri
 bar:test at:21/12/2012 mark:(line,magenta)
 at:27/04/2016 shift:(100,-3) fontsize:XS text: 27 Apr 2016 Whakaari
 bar:test at:27/04/2016 mark:(line,pink)
 at:13/09/2016 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 13 Sep 2016 Whakaari
 bar:test at:13/09/2016 mark:(line,pink)
 at:09/12/2019 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text: 9 Dec 2019 Whakaari
 bar:test at:09/12/2019 mark:(line,pink)

LineData = 

 at:09/12/2019 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:13/09/2016 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:27/04/2016 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/12/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:07/08/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:06/08/2012 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:25/09/2007 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:04/10/2006 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:19/07/2001 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:07/03/2000 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/08/1998 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:28/03/1998 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/10/1997 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/06/1996 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/03/1996 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:1
 at:28/06/1995 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:11/01/1995 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:12/02/1994 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:1
 at:08/02/1992 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:05/07/1991 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:17/06/1990 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:07/01/1990 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/07/1989 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:08/12/1988 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:20/03/1988 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:24/08/1987 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:08/02/1986 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/02/1986 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:15/11/1985 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/05/1985 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:25/10/1984 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:02/04/1984 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:26/12/1983 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:25/10/1981 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/05/1981 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:18/10/1980 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:15/01/1980 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:30/06/1979 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:23/02/1978 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:04/07/1977 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/07/1977 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/10/1977 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:18/12/1976 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:23/08/1976 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:06/03/1976 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:17/10/1975 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:24/04/1975 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:12/02/1975 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:08/09/1974 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:31/10/1973 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/02/1973 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/11/1972 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/10/1972 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:19/03/1972 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:19/07/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/04/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:03/04/1971 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/09/1970 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:30/06/1970 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/08/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/06/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/01/1969 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:18/08/1968 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:06/04/1968 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:27/01/1968 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/07/1967 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:13/11/1966 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:04/04/1966 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2 
 at:15/12/1962 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:24/05/1962 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:14/12/1959 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1959 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/05/1959 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/12/1958 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:05/11/1958 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:11/12/1957 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:18/11/1956 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:11/01/1956 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/01/1955 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:13/05/1954 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:28/12/1953 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:29/11/1952 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/07/1952 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/06/1951 frompos:365 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/05/1951 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:19/03/1951 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:26/06/1950 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/06/1950 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/02/1949 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1948 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/05/1948 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:30/04/1948 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:02/01/1947 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/11/1946 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:02/04/1946 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:08/03/1945 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1944 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:10/08/1942 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1940 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/04/1940 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/08/1939 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1937 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/05/1936 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:31/12/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/12/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:11/08/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1934 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:02/04/1933 frompos:346 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/02/1931 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/03/1930 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1928 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/07/1928 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:03/03/1928 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1927 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/12/1926 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:17/11/1926 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/04/1926 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:03/02/1926 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/11/1925 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/01/1925 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1924 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/05/1924 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:09/01/1924 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/03/1924 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1924 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1922 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1921 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:29/06/1918 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1918 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1917 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:24/03/1917 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:05/11/1915 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:04/02/1915 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1914 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:28/01/1914 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/05/1913 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:27/01/1913 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1913 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/04/1912 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1910 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:24/07/1910 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1910 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:13/05/1909 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/03/1909 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:28/11/1908 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1908 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/11/1907 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/02/1907 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:15/03/1906 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/03/1906 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/02/1906 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:17/06/1905 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:18/02/1905 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1905 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:22/11/1904 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1903 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1900 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1898 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1897 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/11/1896 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1896 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:10/03/1895 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:30/11/1892 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/11/1892 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/03/1890 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/05/1889 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/09/1886 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:10/06/1886 frompos:320 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1886 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1885 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1885 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1885 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:25/04/1883 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:06/07/1881 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/09/1878 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1875 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/04/1870 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/08/1869 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/12/1864 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1863 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1862 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:16/05/1861 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:21/04/1859 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/02/1857 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1856 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1855 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/10/1844 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1841 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/02/1839 frompos:362 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/01/1836 frompos:368 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
 at:01/06/1836 frompos:354 tillpos:370 color:red width:2
</timeline>

Scientific study

Tectonics

Main page: Earth:Taupō Rift

Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth's crust below the Taupō Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick. A film of magma 50 kilometres (30 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (100 mi) long lies 10 kilometres under the surface.[18][19] The geological record indicates that some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent and destructive eruptions when they do.

Technically the zone is in the continental intraarc Taupō Rift. This has had three active stages of faulting in the last 2 million years with the modern Taupō rift evolving in the last 25,000 years after the massive Oruanui eruption being within two essentially inactive rift systems. These are the surrounding limits of the young Taupō Rift between 25,000 and 350,000 years and old Taupō Rift system whose northern boundary is now located well to the north of the other two being created before 350,000 years ago.[2]

The Tauranga Volcanic Centre which was active between 2.95 to 1.9 million years ago, and was previously classified as part of the Central Volcanic Region,[1] appears now to be in a tectonic continuum with the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Recent ocean floor tephra studies off the east coast of the North Island have shown an abrupt compositional change in these, from about 4.5 million years ago, that has been suggested to distinguish Coromandel Volcanic Zone activity from that of the Taupō Volcanic Zone.[20] Further the distinctive Waiteariki ignimbrite that erupted 2.1 million years ago in a supereruption, presumably from the gravity anomaly defined Omanawa Caldera,[21] is within the postulated borders of the old Taupō Rift.[22]

Faults

The multiple intra-rift faults are some of the most active in the country and some have the potential to create over magnitude 7 events. The fault structures are perhaps most well characterised related to the Ruapehu and Tongariro grabens. The recent deposits from major eruptions and lake features mean many potentially significant faults are uncharacterised, either completely (for example the 6.5 MW 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake resulted in the mapping of the Edgecumbe fault for the first time) or frequency of events and their likely magnitude are not understood. It can not be assumed that just because the rate of expansion of the rift is greatest near the coast that this is where most significant tectonic earthquakes in terms of human risk will be. The Waihi Fault Zone south of Lake Taupō and associated with the Tongariro graben has a particular risk of inducing massive landslips which has caused significant loss of life and appears to be more active than many other faults in the zone.

Volcanism

In 1886, Mount Tarawera produced New Zealand's largest historic eruption since European colonisation

The north (Whakatane Graben – Bay of Plenty) part of the zone is predominantly formed from andesitic magma[23][24] and represented by the continuously active Whakaari / White Island andesite–dacite stratovolcano. Although Strombolian activity has occurred the explosive eruptions are typically phreatic or phreatomagmatic.[25] The active emergent summit tops the larger, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) × 18 kilometres (11 mi), submarine volcano with a total volume of 78 km3 (19 cu mi).[26][27][28][29]

The central part of the zone is composed of eight caldera centres the oldest of which is the Mangakino caldera which was active more than a million years ago (1.62–0.91 Ma).[23] This produced ignimbrite that 170 km (110 mi) away in Auckland is up to 9 m (30 ft) thick.[30] Other than the now buried Kapenga caldera there are five caldera centres, Rotorua, Ohakuri, Reporoa, Ōkataina and Taupō. These have resulted from massive infrequent eruptions of gaseous very viscous rhyolite magma which is rich in silicon, potassium, and sodium and created the ignimbrite sheets of the North Island Volcanic Plateau. The detailed composition suggests subduction erosion might play a predominant role in producing this rhyolite,[31]:{{{1}}} as later assimilation and fractional crystallization of primary basalt magma, is difficult to model to explain the composition and volumes erupted.[32] This central zone has had the largest number of very large silicic caldera-forming eruptions recently on earth.[33] During a period of less than 100,000 years commencing with the massive Whakamaru eruption about 335,000 years ago of greater than 2,000 km3 (480 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of material, just to the north of the present Lake Taupō, over 4,000 km3 (960 cu mi) total was erupted. These eruptions essentially defined the limits of the present central volcanic plateau, although its current central landscape is mainly a product of later smaller events over the last 200,000 years than the Whakamaru eruption. The other volcanic plateau defining eruptions were to the west, the 150 km3 (36 cu mi) Matahina eruption of about 280,000 years ago, the mainly tephra 50 km3 (12 cu mi) Chimp (Chimpanzee) eruption between 320 and 275 ka, the central 50 km3 (12 cu mi) Pokai eruption of about 275 ka, and the paired Mamaku to the north and east central Ohakuri eruptions of about 240,000 years ago that together produced more than 245 km3 (59 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of material.[33] The southern Taupō Volcano Oruanui eruption about 25,600 years ago produced 530 km3 (130 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent of material and its recent Hatepe eruption of 232 CE ± 10 years had 120 km3 (29 cu mi) dense-rock equivalent.[5] 

Less gaseous rhyolite magma dome building effusive eruptions have built features such as the Horomatangi Reefs or Motutaiko Island in Lake Taupō or the lava dome of Mount Tarawera. This later as part of the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field in New Zealand to man.[34] Mount Tauhara adjacent to Lake Taupō is actually a dacitic dome [35] and so intermediate in composition between andesite and rhyolite but still more viscous than basalt which is rarely found in the zone.[36]

The southern part of the zone contain classic volcanic cone structure formed from andesite magma in effusive eruptions that cool to form dark grey lava if gas-poor or scoria if gas-rich of this part of the zone. Mount Ruapehu, the tallest mountain in the North Island, is a 150 km3 (36 cu mi) andesite cone surrounded by a 150 km3 (36 cu mi) ring-plain.[37] This ring plain is formed from numerous volcanic deposits created by slope failure, eruptions, or lahars. Northwest of Ruapehu is Hauhungatahi, the oldest recorded volcano in the south of the plateau,[37] with to the north the two prominent volcanic mountains in the Tongariro volcanic centre being Tongariro and Ngauruhoe which are part of a single composite stratovolcano.

Risks

Southwest side of Mount Tarawera, Mount Edgecumbe on the background.

The most likely risk is earthquake associated with multiple active faults,[38] such as within the Taupō Fault Belt, but many faults will be uncharacterised as was the case with the 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake.[39] Earthquakes can be associated with landslides and inland or coastal tsunami that can result in great loss of life and both have happened on the Waihi Fault Zone.[40] The relative low grade volcanic activity of the andesite volcanoes at each end of the zone has resulted in recorded history in both direct loss of life and disrupted transport and tourism. The only high grade eruption in recorded history was atypically basaltic from Mount Tarawera and although very destructive is not likely to be a perfect model for the more typical and often larger rhyolitic events associated with the Taupō Volcano and the Ōkataina Caldera.[41] As mentioned earlier the Ōkataina caldera complex is the highest risk volcanic field risk in New Zealand to man[34] and the recent frequency of rhyolitic events there is not reassuring, along with the timescale of likely warning of such an event.[41] These eruptions are associated with tephra production that results in deep ash fall over wide areas (e.g. the Whakatane eruption of ~ 5500 years ago had 5 mm (0.20 in) ashfall 900 km (560 mi) away on the Chatham Islands) `[42] pyroclastic flows and surges, which rarely have covered large areas of the North Island in ignimbrite sheets, earthquakes, lake tsunamis, prolonged lava dome growth and associated block and ash flows with post-eruption lahars and flooding.[41]

<timeline> ImageSize = width:320 height:2000 PlotArea = right:50 top:10 left:50 bottom:10 DateFormat = yyyy TimeAxis = orientation:vertical Period = from:-30000 till:2500 AlignBars = early ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:1000 start:-30000 Colors = 

 id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85)

BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas PlotData = 

 width:15 color:white
 bar:test from:-30000 till:2500 #

PlotData = 

 at:-29999 shift:(0,-5) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone
 at:2500 shift:(0,-4) text: Selected eruptions Taupō Volcanic Zone
 at:-29750 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: Note - The further back in time, the larger an eruption
 at:-29600 shift:(40,-5) fontsize:XS text: must be, to be detected. Accordingly interpret with caution
 at:-29450 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: as eruptive indices are based for many eruptions on tepra
 at:-29300 shift:(40,-3) fontsize:XS text: deposits alone and DRE volume is not the same.
 at:-29050 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume)
 at:-28900 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index
 at:-28750 shift:(195,-5) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 at:2450 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: Eruptive Index
 at:2300 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 at:2150 shift:(195,-4) textcolor:red text: (DRE volume)
 at:-26435 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:26400 BCE Taupō Poihipi
 bar:test at:-26435 mark:(line,red)
 at:-26435 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1.5 km  )
 at:-26435 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-25580 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:25580 BCE Taupō Oruanui eruption  
 at:-25580 shift:(215,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(530 km  )
 at:-25580 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 bar:test at:-25580 mark:(line,red)
 at:-25171 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:25171 BCE Te Rere eruption  
 at:-25171 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11.5 km)
 at:-25171 shift:(255,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 bar:test at:-25171 mark:(line,red)
 at:-23535	shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:23535 BCE Ōkataina Okareka 
 bar:test at:-23535 mark:(line,red)
 at:-23535 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km  )
 at:-23535 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-17496  shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:17496 BCE Ōkataina Rerewhakaaitu
 bar:test at:-17496 mark:(line,red)
 at:-17496 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km  )
 at:-17496 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-15635	shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:15635 BCE Ōkataina Rotorua
 bar:test at:-15635 mark:(line,red) 
 at:-15635 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(4 km  )
 at:-15635 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-14009	shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:14009 BCE Ōkataina Waiohau
 bar:test at:-14009 mark:(line,red)
 at:-14009 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(11 km  )
 at:-14009	shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3 
 at:-9460 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text:9460 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit B
 bar:test at:-9460 mark:(line,red)
 at:-9460 shift:(217,-16) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.5 km  )
 at:-9460 shift:(253,-14) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-9240 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text:9240 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt  Unit C
 bar:test at:-9240 mark:(line,red)
 at:-9240 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.3 km  )
 at:-9240 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-9210 shift:(10,-8) fontsize:XS text:9210 BCE Acacia Bay Unit D
 bar:test at:-9210 mark:(line,red)
 at:-8130 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:8130 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit E
 bar:test at:-8130 mark:(line,red)
 at:-8130 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(2 km  )
 at:-8130 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-9423 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:9423 BCE Ōkataina Rotoma
 bar:test at:-9423 mark:(line,red)
 at:-9423 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(8 km  )
 at:-9423 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-7940 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:7940 BCE Ōkataina Mamaku
 bar:test at:-7940 mark:(line,red)
 at:-7940 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17.5 km  )
 at:-7940 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-5100 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:5100 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit F
 bar:test at:-5100 mark:(line,red)
 at:-5100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.07 km  )
 at:-5100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-4700 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:4700 BCE Taupō East/Central Unit G
 bar:test at:-4700 mark:(line,red)
 at:-4700 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.2 km  )
 at:-4700 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-4100 shift:(10,-3) fontsize:XS text:4100 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit H
 bar:test at:-4100 mark:(line,red)
 at:-4100 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.08 km  )
 at:-4100 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-4000 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:4000 BCE Taupō Unit I
 bar:test at:-4000 mark:(line,red)
 at:-5526 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text:5526 BCE Ōkataina Whakatane
 bar:test at:-5526 mark:(line,red)
 at:-5526 shift:(220,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(17 km  )
 at:-5526 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-3420 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text:3420 BCE Taupō Unit J
 bar:test at:-3420 mark:(line,red)
 at:-3170 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS text:3170 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit K
 bar:test at:-3170 mark:(line,red)
 at:-3120 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text:3120 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit L
 bar:test at:-3120 mark:(line,red)  
 at:-3070 shift:(10,-2) fontsize:XS text:3070 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit M
 bar:test at:-3070 mark:(line,red)  
 at:-2900 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:2900 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit N
 bar:test at:-2900 mark:(line,red)  
 at:-2850 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text:2850 BCE Taupō Te Tuhi Pt Unit O
 bar:test at:-2850 mark:(line,red) 
 at:-2800 shift:(10,5) fontsize:XS text:2800 BCE Taupō Unit P 
 bar:test at:-2800 mark:(line,red)
 at:-2600 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text:2600 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit Q
 bar:test at:-2600 mark:(line,red)
 at:-2500 shift:(10,3) fontsize:XS text:2500 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit R
 bar:test at:-2500 mark:(line,red) 
 at:-1460 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:1460 BCE Taupō Horomatangi Unit S
 bar:test at:-1460 mark:(line,red)
 at:-1460 shift:(217,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(7.5 km  )
 at:-1460 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:-1250 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:1250 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit T
 bar:test at:-1250 mark:(line,red)
 at:-1050 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text:1050 BCE Taupō Motutaiko Island Unit U
 bar:test at:-1050 mark:(line,red)  
 at:-1010 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text:1010 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit V
 bar:test at:-1010 mark:(line,red)  
 at:-800 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text:800 BCE Taupō Ouaha Hills Unit W
 bar:test at:-800 mark:(line,red) 
 at:-200 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:200 BCE Taupō Te Kohaiakatu Pt Unit X
 bar:test at:-200 mark:(line,red)
 at:-200 shift:(212,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(0.28 km  )
 at:-200 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:233 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text:233 Taupō Hatepe eruption Unit Y
 bar:test at:233 mark:(line,red)
 at:233 shift:(214,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(120 km  )
 at:233 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:260 shift:(10,1) fontsize:XS text:260 Taupō Eastern lake
 bar:test at:260 mark:(line,red) 
 at:1200 shift:(10,-6) fontsize:XS text: Māori in NZ 
 bar:test at:1200 mark:(line,black) 
 at:1314 shift:(10,-4) fontsize:XS text:1314 Ōkataina Kaharoa
 at:1314 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(5 km  )
 at:1314 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 bar:test at:1314 mark:(line,red)
 at:1840 shift:(10,-11) fontsize:XS  text: European colonisation
 bar:test at:1840 mark:(line,black)
 at:1886 shift:(10,-5) fontsize:XS text:1886 Okataina Tarawera
 bar:test at:1886 mark:(line,red)
 at:1886 shift:(226,-11) textcolor:red fontsize:S text:(1 km  )
 at:1886 shift:(253,-9) textcolor:red fontsize:XS text:3
 at:1945 shift:(10,0) fontsize:XS text:1945 Ruapehu
 bar:test at:1945 mark:(line,red)

LineData = 

 at:1945 frompos:300 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:1886 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:1314 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:260 frompos:315 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:233 frompos:260 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-200 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-800 frompos:300 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-1010 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-1050 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-1250 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-1460 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-2500 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-2600 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-2800 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-2850 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-2900 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-3070 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-3120 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-3170 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-3420 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-5526 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-4000 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-4100 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-4700 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-5100 frompos:290 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-7940 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-9423 frompos:260 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-8130 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-9210 frompos:280 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-9240 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-9460 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-14009	frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-15635 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-17496	frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-23535 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-25171 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-25580 frompos:240 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
 at:-26435 frompos:270 tillpos:320 color:red width:2
</timeline>

Volcanoes, lakes and geothermal fields

Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap 
Download coordinates as: KML · GPX

<mapframe zoom="7" text="Map of selected volcanic features as rectangular symbols for the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Volcanoes classified as active are shown as red, other notable volcanoes (there are many more) are shown as orange, geothermal areas as light blue and if active hydrothermal eruptions as blue. It is possible by clicking on the map to get a full screen view that enables mouseover to show a label (often wiki-linked) for each symbol." align="right" height="360" latitude="-38.2" longitude="176.3" width="300">{{Wikipedia:Map data/Taupō Volcanic Zone}}</mapframe> <mapframe text="Map of selected surface volcanic deposits centered on the Taupō Volcanic Zone, allowing wider volcanic context. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables panning and mouseover of volcanic deposits name/wikilink and ages before present. The key to the shading of the volcanics that are shown is rhyolite - violet, ignimbrite - lighter shades of violet, dacite - purple, basalt - brown, monogenetic basalts - dark brown, undifferentiated basalts of the Tangihua Complex in Northland Allochthon - light brown, arc basalts - deep orange brown, arc ring basalts -orange brown, andesite - red, basaltic andesite`- light red, and plutonic - gray. White shading has been used for postulated calderas (usually subsurface now)." zoom="7" align="right" longitude="176.3" height="360" class="no-icon" latitude="-38.2" width="300">{{Wikipedia:Map data/Northern North Island Volcanics}}</mapframe> The following Volcanic Centres belong to the modern Taupō Volcanic Zone in what proved to be an evolving classification scheme:

Satellite view of the Lake Rotorua Caldera. Mount Tarawera is in the lower right corner.
Recent major volcanic features Lake Taupō showing relationship to recent volcanic vents in red and present active geothermal systems in light blue.
Composite satellite image of Mount Ruapehu

Rotorua, Ōkataina, Maroa, Taupō, Tongariro and Mangakino.[43][44] The old zone almost certainly contains volcanoes in the Tauranga Volcanic Centre.[45]

Other important features of the TVZ include the Ngakuru and Ruapehu grabens.

Note

Craters of the Moon geothermal area

There is more recent, somewhat different classification, by some of the same authors, that uses the term caldera complex:[23]

  • Central part:
    • West of the main fault zone:
      • Mangakino caldera complex; may be transitional between Coromandel Volcanic Zone (CVZ) and Taupō Volcanic Zone (TVZ) (1.62 – 0.91 mio. years old)
      • Kapenga caldera; lies between the Maroa caldera and the Rotorua caldera, it is completely buried under more recent tephra (circa 700,000 years old)
        • Okareka Embayment, lies inside the northern end of the Kapenga caldera, but is now usually regarded as part of the recently active Okataina caldera complex[49]
      • Rotorua single event caldera; Mamaku Ignimbrite (circa 225,000 years old)
    • Main fault zone:
    • East of the main fault zone:
      • Reporoa single event caldera; Kaingaroa Ignimbrite (circa 240,000 years old)
Panorama across Lake Taupō

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cole, J.W.; Darby, D.J.; Stern, T.A. (1995). "Taupo Volcanic Zone and Central Volcanic Region: Backarc Structures of North Island, New Zealand". in Taylor, Brian. Backarc Basins: Tectonics and Magmatism. New York: Plenum. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4615-1843-3. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Villimor, P.; Berryman, K. R.; Ellis, S. M.; Schreurs, G.; Wallace, L. M.; Leonard, G. S.; Langridge, R. M.; Ries, W. F. (2017-10-04). "Rapid Evolution of Subduction-Related Continental Intraarc Rifts: The Taupo Rift, New Zealand" (in en). Tectonics 36 (10): 2250–2272. doi:10.1002/2017TC004715. Bibcode: 2017Tecto..36.2250V. 
  3. ↑ Bonadonna, C.; Connor, C. B.; Houghton, B. F.; Connor, L.; Byrne, M.; Laing, A.; Hincks, T.K. (2005-03-15). "Probabilistic modeling of tephra dispersal: Hazard assessment of a multiphase rhyolitic eruption at Tarawera, New Zealand". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 110 (B3). doi:10.1029/2003JB002896. Bibcode: 2005JGRB..110.3203B. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2003JB002896. 
  4. ↑ David, Lowe (2006). "Polynesian settlement and impacts of volcanism on early Maori society". in Lowe, D.J.. Guidebook for 'Land and Lakes' field trip, New Zealand Society of Soil Science Biennial Conference, Rotorua, held in 27–30 November 2006. Lincoln: New Zealand Society of Soil Science. pp. 50–55. http://earth.waikato.ac.nz/staff/lowe/download/Rotorua_Land_and_Lakes_field_trip_NZSSS-1_Dec_06-web.pdf. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Illsley-Kemp, Finnigan; Barker, Simon J.; Wilson, Colin J. N.; Chamberlain, Calum J.; Hreinsdóttir, Sigrún; Ellis, Susan; Hamling, Ian J.; Savage, Martha K. et al. (2021-06-01). "Volcanic Unrest at Taupō Volcano in 2019: Causes, Mechanisms and Implications". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 22 (6): 1–27. doi:10.1029/2021GC009803. Bibcode: 2021GGG....2209803I. 
  6. ↑ de Lange, Willem; Moon, Vicki (2016). Volcanic generation of tsunamis: Two New Zealand palaeo-events in Submarine Mass Movements and their Consequences. 56. https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/11788/deLange+Moon-V5%20(2).pdf?sequence=42. 
  7. ↑ Dunbar, Nelia W.; Iverson, Nels A.; Van Eaton, Alexa R.; Sigl, Michael; Alloway, Brent V.; Kurbatov, Andrei V.; Mastin, Larry G.; McConnell, Joseph R. et al. (2017-09-25). "New Zealand supereruption provides time marker for the Last Glacial Maximum in Antarctica". Scientific Reports 7 (1): 12238. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-11758-0. PMID 28947829. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...712238D. 
  8. ↑ Milner, David M (2001). The structure and eruptive history of Rotorua Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand (Thesis).
  9. ↑ "Rotorua". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=241816. 
  10. ↑ Gamble, J. A.; Wright, I. C.; Baker, J. A. (1993). "Seafloor geology and petrology in the oceanic to continental transition zone of the Kermadec-Havre-Taupo Volcanic Zone arc system, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 36 (4): 417–435. doi:10.1080/00288306.1993.9514588. http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjgg/1993/40.php. 
  11. ↑ Caratori Tontini, F.; Bassett, D.; de Ronde, C. E. J.; Timm, C.; Wysoczanski, R. (2019). "Early evolution of a young back-arc basin in the Havre Trough". Nature Geoscience 12 (10): 856–862. doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0439-y. Bibcode: 2019NatGe..12..856C. http://oceanrep.geomar.de/47797/13/pm_2019_44_plattenbewegung-NZ.pdf. 
  12. ↑ Parson, L. M.; Wright, I. C. (1996). "The Lau-Havre-Taupo back-arc basin: A southward-propagating, multi-stage evolution from rifting to spreading". Tectonophysics 263 (1–4): 1–22. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(96)00029-7. Bibcode: 1996Tectp.263....1P. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Houghton, B.F.; Wilson, J. N. C; Weaver, S.D.; Lanphere, M.A.; Barclay, J (1995). "Mayor Island Geology". Volcanic Hazards at Mayor Island. [Palmerston North, NZ]: Ministry of Civil Defence. Volcanic Hazards Information Series 6.: 1–23. https://www.gns.cri.nz/Home/Learning/Science-Topics/Volcanoes/New-Zealand-Volcanoes/Volcano-Geology-and-Hazards/Mayor-Island-Geology. 
  14. ↑ Houghton, Bruce F.; Weaver, S.D.; Wilson, J. N.; Lanphere, M.A. (1992). "Evolution of a quaternary peralkaline volcano: Mayor Island, New Zealand.". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 51 (3): 217–236. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(92)90124-V. Bibcode: 1992JVGR...51..217H. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/037702739290124V. 
  15. ↑ Price, R. C.; Stewart, R. B.; Woodhead, J. D.; Smith, I. E. M. (1999). "Petrogenesis of High-K Arc Magmas: Evidence from Egmont Volcano, North Island, New Zealand". Journal of Petrology 40 (1): 167–197. doi:10.1093/petroj/40.1.167. https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article/40/1/167/1572845. 
  16. ↑ Holden, Lucas; Wallace, L.; Beavan, J.; Fournier, Nico; Cas, Raymond; Ailleres, Laurent; Silcock, David. (2015-07-28). "Contemporary ground deformation in the Taupo Rift and Okataina Volcanic Centre from 1998 to 2011, measured using GPS.". Geophysical Journal International 202 (3): 2082–2105. doi:10.1093/gji/ggv243. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/202/3/2082/609241. 
  17. ↑ Villamor, P.; Berryman, K. R. (2006). "Evolution of the southern termination of the Taupo Rift, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 49: 23–37. doi:10.1080/00288306.2006.9515145. 
  18. ↑ Easton, Paul (15 September 2007). "Central North Island sitting on magma film". The Dominion Post. http://www.stuff.co.nz/4202557a11.html. 
  19. ↑ Heise, W.; Bibby, H.M.; Caldwell, T.G. (2007). "Imaging magmatic Processes in the Taupo Volcanic Zone (New Zealand) with Magnetotellurics". Geophysical Research Abstracts 9. http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU2007/01311/EGU2007-J-01311.pdf?PHPSESSID=e.  01311.
  20. ↑ Pank, K; Kutterolf, S; Hopkins, JL; Wang, KL; Lee, HY; Schmitt, AK (2023). "Advances in New Zealand's tephrochronostratigraphy using marine drill sites: The Neogene". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 24 (8): e2023GC010866. doi:10.1029/2023GC010866. 
  21. ↑ Stagpoole, V; Miller, C; Caratori, Tontini F; Brakenrig, T; Macdonald, N (2021). "A two million-year history of rifting and caldera volcanism imprinted in new gravity anomaly compilation of the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 64 (2–3): 358–371. doi:10.1080/00288306.2020.1848882. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00288306.2020.1848882. 
  22. ↑ Prentice, Marlena; Pittari, Adrian; Lowe, David J.; Kilgour, Geoff; Kamp, Peter J.J.; Namaliu, Miriam (2022). "Linking proximal ignimbrites and coeval distal tephra deposits to establish a record of voluminous Early Quaternary (2.4–1.9 Ma) volcanism of the Tauranga Volcanic Centre, New Zealand". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 429 (107595): 107595. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107595. ISSN 0377-0273. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027322001263. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Cole, J. W.; Spinks, K. D. (2009). "Caldera volcanism and rift structure in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". Special Publications (London: Geological Society) 327 (1): 9–29. doi:10.1144/SP327.2. Bibcode: 2009GSLSP.327....9C. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/327/1/9. 
  24. ↑ Hiess, J; Cole, JW; Spinks, KD (2007). High-Alumina Basalts of the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: Influence of the Crust and Crustal Structure. p. 36. http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/10092/3172/1/12605971_Hiess%20%202007%20final.pdf. 
  25. ↑ Houghton, B. F.; Nairn, I. A. (1 December 1991). "The 1976–1982 Strombolian and phreatomagmatic eruptions of White Island, New Zealand: eruptive and depositional mechanisms at a 'wet' volcano". Bulletin of Volcanology 54 (1): 25–49. doi:10.1007/BF00278204. Bibcode: 1991BVol...54...25H. 
  26. ↑ Cole, J.W., Thordarson, T. and Burt, R.M., 2000. Magma origin and evolution of White Island (Whakaari) volcano, Bay of plenty, New Zealand. Journal of Petrology, 41(6), pp.867–895.
  27. ↑ Moon, V., Bradshaw, J. and de Lange, W., 2009. Geomorphic development of White Island Volcano based on slope stability modelling. Engineering Geology, 104(1–2), pp.16–30.
  28. ↑ Jimenez, C., 2015. Magmatic-hydrothermal system at White Island volcano, North Island, New Zealand. in M. Calder, ed., pp. 35–46, JCU SEG Student Chapter New Zealand, North Island Field Trip 2015 Guide Book. Queensland, Australia: James Cook University SEG Student Chapter, Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.
  29. ↑ Duncan, A.R. (1970). The petrology and petrochemistry of andesite volcanoes in Eastern Bay of Plenty, New Zealand (PDF) (Thesis). Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. 362.
  30. ↑ "GUIDEBOOK FOR LAND AND LAKES FIELD TRIP". New Zealand Society of Soil Science. 2006-11-28. https://sciencedocbox.com/Geology/79493941-Land-and-lakes-guidebook-for-land-and-lakes-field-trip-tuesday-28-th-november-2006.html. 
  31. ↑ Santa Cruz, Carlos Rodolfo Corella (2023). Subduction cycling and its controls on hyperactive volcanism in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand: a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Earth Science (Thesis). Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
  32. ↑ Santa Cruz, CRC; Zellmer, GF; Stirling, CH; Straub, SM; Brenna, M; Reid, MR; Németh, K; Barr, D (1 July 2023). "Transcrustal and source processes affecting the chemical characteristics of magmas in a hyperactive volcanic zone". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 352: 86–106. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2023.05.003. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Gualda, Guilherme A. R.; Gravley, Darren M.; Connor, Michelle; Hollmann, Brooke; Pamukcu, Ayla S.; Bégué, Florence; Ghiorso, Mark S.; Deering, Chad D. (2018). "Climbing the crustal ladder: Magma storage-depth evolution during a volcanic flare-up". Science Advances 4 (10): eaap7567. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aap7567. PMID 30324132. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Doherty, Angela Louise (2009). "Blue‐sky eruptions, do they exist? Implications for monitoring New Zealand's volcanoes.". University of Canterbury. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35460853.pdf. 
  35. ↑ Volcanic Hazards Working Group of the Civil Defence Scientific Advisory Committee, which includes scientists from the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences and the Universities, Number seven "Taupo Volcanic Centre"
  36. ↑ Bertrand, E.A.; Kannberg, P.; Caldwell, T.G.; Heise, W.; Constable, S.; Scott, B.; Bannister, S.; Kilgour, G. et al. (2022). "Inferring the magmatic roots of volcano-geothermal systems in the Rotorua Caldera and Okataina Volcanic Centre from magnetotelluric models". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 431 (107645): 107645. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2022.107645. ISSN 0377-0273. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027322001767. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Leonard, Graham S.; Cole, Rosie P.; Christenson, Bruce W.; Conway, Chris E.; Cronin, Shane J.; Gamble, John A.; Hurst, Tony; Kennedy, Ben M. et al. (2021-05-02). "Ruapehu and Tongariro stratovolcanoes: a review of current understanding" (in en). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 64 (2–3): 389–420. doi:10.1080/00288306.2021.1909080. 
  38. ↑ "Villamor, P.; Ries, W.; Zajac, A. Rotorua District Council Hazard Studies: Active fault hazards. GNS Science Consultancy Report". 2010. https://www.rotorualakescouncil.nz/repository/libraries/id:2e3idno3317q9sihrv36/hierarchy/our-services/planningservices/districtplan/districtplan/documents/proposed-district-plan/research/Final-report-CR-2010-182-Active-Fault-hazard.pdf. 
  39. ↑ Franks, C.A.M.; Beetham, R.D.; Salt, G.A. (1989). "Ground damage and seismic response resulting from the 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 32 (1): 135–44. doi:10.1080/00288306.1989.10421397. 
  40. ↑ Gómez‐Vasconcelos, Martha; Villamor, Pilar; Procter, Jon; Palmer, Alan; Cronin, Shane; Wallace, Clel; Townsend, Dougal; Leonard, Graham (2018). "Characterisation of faults as earthquake sources from geomorphic data in the Tongariro Volcanic Complex, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 62: 131–142. doi:10.1080/00288306.2018.1548495. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329382912. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Darragh, Miles Benson (2004). Eruption Processes of the Okareka and Rerewhakaaitu eruption episodes; Tarawera Volcano, New Zealand (PDF) (Thesis).
  42. ↑ Holt, Katherine A.; Lowe, David J.; Hogg, Alan G.; Wallace, R. Clel (2011). "Distal occurrence of mid-Holocene Whakatane Tephra on the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and potential for cryptotephra studies". Quaternary International 246 (1–2): 344–351. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.026. ISSN 1040-6182. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618211003454. 
  43. ↑ Cole, J.W. (1990). "Structural control and origin of volcanism in the Taupo volcanic zone, New Zealand". Bulletin of Volcanology 52 (6): 445–459. doi:10.1007/BF00268925. Bibcode: 1990BVol...52..445C. 
  44. ↑ "New Zealand". http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/australia/new_zealand/. 
  45. ↑ Pittari, Adrian; Prentice, Marlena L.; McLeod, Oliver E.; Zadeh, Elham Yousef; Kamp, Peter J. J.; Danišík, Martin; Vincent, Kirsty A. (2021). "Inception of the modern North Island (New Zealand) volcanic setting: spatio-temporal patterns of volcanism between 3.0 and 0.9 Ma". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 64 (2–3): 250–272. doi:10.1080/00288306.2021.1915343. https://fl-nzgs-media.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/2021/08/Ref.6C-c_North-Island-NZ-VolcanicSettingBetween3.00.9MaPittari-et-al.-2021_.pdf. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 "Large Holocene Eruptions". https://volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm. 
  47. ↑ Okataina Volcanic Center, New Zealand
  48. ↑ Nairn, I.A. (2002). Geology of the Okatania Volcanic Centre. Geological Map 25. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences. p. 156. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Hodgson, K. A.; Nairn, I. A. (August 2004). "The Sedimentation and Drainage History of Haroharo Caldera and The Tarawera River System, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". Operations Publication 2004/03 (Environment Bay of Plenty): 7. ISSN 1176-5550. http://www.envbop.govt.nz/Reports/Report-0408-TheSedimentationAndDrainageHistoryOfHaroharoCalderaAndTheTaraweraRiverSystemTaupoVolcanicZoneNewZealand.pdf. 
  50. ↑ Kósik, S.; Németh, K.; Lexa, J.; Procter, J.N. (2019). "Understanding the evolution of a small-volume silicic fissure eruption: Puketerata Volcanic Complex, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 383: 28–46. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.12.008. ISSN 0377-0273. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027317302457. 
  51. ↑ Krippner, Stephen J. P.; Briggs, Roger M.; Wilson, Colin J. N.; Cole, James W. (1998). "Petrography and geochemistry of lithic fragments in ignimbrites from the Mangakino Volcanic Centre: implications for the composition of the subvolcanic crust in western Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 41 (2): 187–199. doi:10.1080/00288306.1998.9514803. 

External links



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Taupō_Volcanic_Zone&oldid=3297445"