List of shibboleths

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Below are listed various examples of words and phrases that have been identified as shibboleths, a word or custom whose variations in pronunciation or style can be used to differentiate members of ingroups from those of outgroups.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

Original shibboleth

The term originates from the Hebrew word shibbólet (שִׁבֹּלֶת), which means the part of a plant containing grain, such as the head of a stalk of wheat or rye;[1][2][3] or less commonly (but arguably more appropriately)[lower-alpha 1] "flood, torrent".[4][5]

The modern use derives from an account in the Hebrew Bible, in which pronunciation of this word was used to distinguish Ephraimites, whose dialect used a differently sounding first consonant. The difference concerns the Hebrew letter shin, which is now pronounced as [ʃ] (as in shoe).[6] In the Book of Judges, chapter 12, after the inhabitants of Gilead under the command of Jephthah inflicted a military defeat upon the invading tribe of Ephraim (around 1370–1070 BC), the surviving Ephraimites tried to cross the River Jordan back into their home territory, but the Gileadites secured the river's fords to stop them. To identify and kill these Ephraimites, the Gileadites told each suspected survivor to say the word shibboleth. The Ephraimite dialect resulted in a pronunciation that, to Gileadites, sounded like sibboleth.[6] In Judges 12:5–6 in the King James Bible, the anecdote appears thus (with the word already in its current English spelling):

And the Gileadites took the passages of Jordan before the Ephraimites: and it was so, that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, Let me go over; that the men of Gilead said unto him, Art thou an Ephraimite? If he said, Nay; Then said they unto him, Say now Shibboleth: and he said Sibboleth: for he could not frame to pronounce it right. Then they took him, and slew him at the passages of Jordan: and there fell at that time of the Ephraimites forty and two thousand.

Shibboleths used in war and persecution

Dutch–French

  • Schild en vriend: On 18 May 1302, the people of Bruges killed the France occupiers of the city during a nocturnal surprise attack. According to a famous legend, they stormed into the houses where they knew the tenants were forced to board and lodge French troops serving as city guards, roused every male person from his bed and forced him to repeat the challenge schild en vriend (shield and friend). The Flemings pronounced schild with a separate "s" /s/ and "ch" /x/". Flemings would pronounce vriend with a voiced v whereas French would render those as a voiceless f.
Every Frenchman who failed the test was stabbed on the spot, still in his nightgown. Because the signal for the uprising was the matins bells of the city's churches and monasteries, this became known as the Bruges Matins or Brugse Metten. Like the name of the massacre, the story may have been influenced by the Sicilian uprising mentioned below.
The problem with this legend is that in Medieval manuscripts of that time, a shield is referred to as "skilde" as in Norse and Norse-influenced English words. Therefore, it is sometimes said that the words must have been "'s gilden vriend" meaning "friend of the guilds." The combination of the 's and the g in "'s gilden" would be pronounced /sx/.[7]

Italian/Sicilian–French

  • Ciciri (chickpeas): This was used by native Sicilians to ferret out Angevin France soldiers in the late 13th century during the Sicilian Vespers, the uprising which freed the island from Angevin rule. Both the Italian soft c /tʃ/, and the Italian r, were (and are still) difficult for the French to pronounce as that sequence of sounds seldom appears in French; also, in French and Angevin, words are primarily stressed on the final syllable.[8]

Sardinian-Italian

  • During Sardinian Vespers, on 28 April 1794, known as sa dii de s'aciappa[9] ("the day of the pursuit and capture"), people in Cagliari started chasing any Piedmontese functionaries they could find; since many of them started to wear the local robes in order to blend into the crowd, any people suspected to be from the Italian mainland would be asked by the populace to "say chickpea" (nara cixiri) in Sardinian: failure in pronouncing the word correctly would give their origin away.

Frisian–Dutch

File:Nl-Schibbolet-fries.oga

  • Bûter, brea, en griene tsiis; wa't dat net sizze kin, is gjin oprjochte Fries (About this soundexample (help·info)) (meaning "Butter, rye bread and green cheese, whoever cannot say that is not a genuine Frisian") was used by the Frisian Pier Gerlofs Donia during a Frisian rebellion (1515–1523). Ships whose crew could not pronounce this properly were usually plundered and soldiers who could not were beheaded by Donia himself.[10]

Castilian Spanish–Latin-American Spanish

  • During the Latin American wars of independence, the name Francisco was used by Colombian rebels to tell locals from Spaniards. Whoever pronounced it as /fɾanˈθisko/ (as in European Spanish) as opposed to /fɾanˈsisko/ would have been thrown into the Magdalena River.[11]

English–Dutch

  • In the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, many Flemings "loste hir heedes at that tyme and namely they that koude nat say Breede and Chese, but Case and Brode."[12]

Finnish–Russian

  • Yksi: Finnish for "one", used by the White Guard to separate Russians from Finns in the Finnish Civil War during the invasion of Tampere. Many of the Russians caught had changed to civilian clothing, so suspected people were rounded up, even from hospitals, and asked to say yksi [ˈyksi] (or made count to ten in Finnish). If the prisoner pronounced it [ˈjuksi], mistaking the front vowel 'y' for an iotated 'u' (ю), he was considered a Russian foreign fighter and was shot on the spot. Any Slav or Balt, Communist or not, was killed, including some members of the White Guard.[13]

Spanish–French and Haitian Creole

  • Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo conducted a massacre of undocumented Haitian settlers along the Dominican–Haitian border. The action is known as the Parsley Massacre. Suspects not fluent in Spanish either did not know or could not properly pronounce the Spanish word perejil ("parsley"). The pronunciation of the word by Haitian citizens tended to be with a trilled r, unlike the native Spanish tapped r, and without the 'l' at the end of the word.[14]

Azeri–Armenian

  • During the Sumgait Pogrom, Azeri rioters targeted ethnic Armenians pulled from their homes and vehicles by asking them the Azeri word for hazelnut, fundukh, which Armenians typically pronounce with a [p] instead of an [f].[15]

Polish–German

  • Soczewica, koło, miele, młyn (Old Polish pronunciation: [ˈs̪ɔt͡ʃɛvit͡sʲa ˈkɔɫɔ ˈmʲɛlʲɛ ˈmɫɪn̪]), meaning "lentil, wheel, grinds [verb], mill": In 1312, the Polish Prince Ladislaus the Elbow-high quelled the Rebellion of wójt Albert in Kraków, populated mostly by Silesian, German and Czech citizens. Anyone over the age of 7 who could not pronounce these Polish words was put to death, ejected from the city or had their property confiscated. 'Ł' (then pronounced as a velarized alveolar lateral approximant, aka dark l) and dental [s̪] are both unlikely to be pronounced properly by Germans since they cannot make out the difference from their own sounds [l] and [s]. (The former was approximated by Germans as l, and has evolved now into a sound similar to English w).[16]

Japanese–Korean

  • Following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, which occurred in an area with a high Korean population, there were rumors that the local Korean population poisoned the wells. The locals accosted random people with Japanese phrases that were difficult to pronounce for non-native speakers, resulting in the killings of ethnic Koreans. Many ethnic Chinese were also killed as they were also unable to correctly pronounce the shibboleths. An unforeseen consequence of the hysteria-induced killings was that some ethnic Japanese from outlying regions, such as Okinawa, were also killed as they had accents that sounded strange to the paranoid locals.[17] The phrase 15.50 Yen (十五円五十銭, Jūgoen gojissen) was one of the shibboleths used to Koreans, as pronouncing voiced consonants were difficult for them.[18]

Ukrainian–Russian

  • Palianytsia: a type of Ukrainian bread. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the word palianytsia (Ukrainian: паляниця, [pɐlʲɐˈnɪt͡sʲɐ]) became one of those proposed to use to identify Russian subversive reconnaissance groups, as it is unlikely to be pronounced properly by Russians due to different phonetics of the Russian language according to apostrophe.ua.[19] On Russian state television, Russia-1 television host Olga Skabeyeva pronounced this word as "polyanitsa" and said that it means strawberry, confusing it with another Ukrainian word, polunytsia (Ukrainian: полуниця, [pɔlʊˈnɪt͡sʲɐ]).[20]

Culture, religion and language-specific shibboleths

  • English-speaking Allied personnel in Europe, during the Second World War, frequently made use of passwords in which labio-velar approximants (w-sounds) or voiceless dental fricatives (th-sounds) were prominent, as these are unusual in spoken German, and the letter w is normally pronounced "v" by native speakers of German. For instance, following D-Day (1944) US forces used the challenge-response "Flash" – "Thunder" – "Welcome".[21]
  • American soldiers could ferret out German infiltrators during their time in the Western Front. German spies were taught British English, which was different from American English. For example, Britons used the word lorry rather than the American term truck. American soldiers used such words as a shibboleth to distinguish Nazi spies.
  • Israeli forces during the 1948 Palestine war used passwords chosen to contain voiceless bilabial stops (p-sounds), which are not found in Arabic, and which native speakers of Arabic often replace with a voiced bilabial stop (b-sounds).[citation needed]
  • In the Lebanese Civil War of 1975, Christian Lebanese soldiers targeted suspected Palestinians at checkpoints by asking how they pronounced the Arabic word for "tomato", which is pronounced "banadoura" in Lebanese Arabic and "bandoura" in Palestinian Arabic. If they said the former, they were let through; if they said the latter, they were shot on the spot.[22]
  • At the Battle of Mount Tumbledown in the 1982 Falklands War, the Scots Guards replaced the established passwords for their night attack with the phrase "Hey Jimmie", because the Spanish-speaking Argentinians would have difficulty pronouncing the English consonant "J".[23]
  • During the Somali Islamic terrorist group al-Shabaab's 2013 shooting and hostage siege attack on the Westgate shopping mall in Nairobi, Kenya, the attackers asked for Islamic prophet Muhammad's mother Aminah bint Wahb's name and the shahada as religious shibboleths to determine Muslims and non-Muslims. Muslims were freed, while non-Muslims were targeted. An Indian man who could not name Aminah was shot dead.[24][25]
  • The mostly Christian Filipino ground troops fighting in the 2013 Zamboanga City crisis used the Lord's Prayer as a way to identify Moro insurgents. Those who could not recite the Lord's Prayer in any Philippine language, including English, were immediately suspected of being part of the armed Moro National Liberation Front and detained. All non-Christians, including non-combatant Muslims, would also fail the test.[26]

Other non-English shibboleths

Dutch

  • The sentence De zon in de zee zien zakken (Eye dialect: De son in de see sien sakke) 'to see the sun go under the sea', pronounced [də ˈsɔn ɪn də ˈsei sin ˈsɑkə] (or, in broader accents, [də ˈɕɔn ɪn də ˈɕei ɕin ˈɕɑkə]) is used to identify speakers of the Amsterdam dialect, who lack the /z/ phoneme. The standard Dutch pronunciation of that sentence is [də ˈzɔn ɪn də ˈzeː zin ˈzɑkə(n)]. Contrary to the stereotype, any prevocalic ⟨z⟩ can be voiced in Amsterdam, but then so can any prevocalic ⟨s⟩ through the process of hypercorrection (so that suiker 'sugar', pronounced [ˈsœykər] in Standard Dutch may be pronounced [ˈzɐykər] (spelled zuiker in eye dialect) in Amsterdam).[27]

English shibboleths for native speakers or local natives

  • Fish and chips: The accents of Australia ns and New Zealanders seem very similar, and the term fish and chips is sometimes evoked to illustrate a major difference between the two. In New Zealand pronunciation short i is a central vowel, [ɘ]. This vowel sound is sometimes caricatured as "fush and chups" by Australians. The Australian pronunciation has the front vowel [ɪ] (which is more common in most varieties of English) which, due to an overall vowel shift in New Zealand, sounds like "feesh and cheeps" to the ears of a New Zealander,[28][29] sounding like an instance of the "Fill–feel merger".
  • Pronunciation of letters of the alphabet:
    • H: in Northern Ireland pronounced 'aitch' by Protestants, and 'haitch' by Catholics,[30] per Hiberno-English.[31] Also often pronounced 'haitch' in dialects of English spoken in former colonies of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, usually among non-native English speakers, but in the case of Australia , also among native speakers, especially those of Irish descent.[32]
    • Z: pronounced zee in the United States ; typically zed in the rest of the world. Known in American history and popular culture for distinguishing American males who fled to Canada from the US to escape the military draft in the 1950s and 60s.[33][34] The Canadian pronunciation was featured in the Molson Canadian I Am Canadian advertisement in 2000.[35]

Place-name pronunciations

In Australia

In Canada

  • Calgary, Alberta: citizens distinctively pronounce the name without the middle syllable of its spelling, thus: /ˈkælɡriː/ KAL-gree.[38]
  • Montreal , Québec: Anglophone Montrealers pronounce the name of their city with the STRUT vowel in the first syllable, thus: /ˌmʌntriˈɔːl/ MUN-tree-AWL. The tendency of English speakers from elsewhere in North America, especially the US, to pronounce the first syllable with the LOT vowel (thus /ˌmɒntriˈɔːl/ MON-tree-AWL), immediately marks them as non-Montrealers to local ears. (However, Francophone Montrealers pronounce it [mɔ̃ʁeal], at least in their native French.)
  • Newfoundland: Some outsiders pronounce the island name almost as if it were three separate words, /njuːˈfaʊndlənd/ new-FOWND-lənd rather than the local pronunciation, /ˌnjuːfənˈlænd/ NEW-fən-LAND, rhyming with "understand".[39]
  • Regina, Saskatchewan: Pronounced /rɪˈdʒaɪnə/ rij-EYE-nə,[40] rhyming with "vagina". Familiarity with the standard pronunciation may in some cases distinguish Canadians from Americans.[41]
  • Saskatchewan: Most Canadians will pronounce the name of this province with a schwa in all syllables except the second, where the stress is placed: /səˈskætʃəwən/ (About this soundlisten) sə-SKATCH-ə-wən, while locals, especially in rural areas, often condense the name even further down to two syllables: /skætʃwən/ SKATCH-wən. In contrast, outsiders frequently stress the first syllable and fully pronounce all of its vowels: /ˈsæskætʃuɒn/ SASK-atch-choo-on.[42]
  • Toronto, Ontario: Toronto is sometimes pronounced with the first syllable elided as if it were a two-syllable word: /ˈtrɒntoʊ/ "Tronto". Stronger local forms are /təˈrɒntə/ "Toronta" and /ˈtrɒntə/ "Tronta", with the GOAT vowel reduced to a schwa.[43] but they are both more noticeable and generally less approved of, possibly because they deviate far enough from the spelling as to make the speaker sound potentially semiliterate.[44][45][46][47] This shibboleth was referenced in the Oscar-winning movie Argo.

In Ireland

In Malaysia

In New Zealand

  • Bluff: The town of Bluff is almost always referred to by locals with the definite article as "The Bluff".
  • Central Otago: Whereas most New Zealanders would talk about travelling to Central Otago or being in Central Otago, locals refer to travelling or being "up Central".
  • Otago: Older residents will often end and begin the regions name with a schwa as /ə.'tɑː.gə/ rather than the usual rounded "o" (/oʊ.'tɑː.goʊ/).
  • Saint Arnaud: While the official pronunciation is the same as would be expected from a French-language name (/'ɑː.noʊ/), locals often voice the name's end as /'ɑː.nəd/.
  • Waiwera South: Officially pronounced as /waɪ.'wɛər.ə/, older locals will often use the non-standard /'waɪ.vrə/.
  • West Coast and East Coast: Without context or further description, among New Zealanders "The East Coast" usually refers to the northeast of the North Island, whereas "The West Coast" usually refers to the west coast of the South Island.

Various town and street names are pronounced in counter-intuitive ways. These include:

  • Antigua Street, Christchurch: pronounced /æn.'tɪ.giːu.ər/.
  • Eltham: Although named after Eltham in England, the town's name is pronounced /'ɛl.θəm/, not /'ɛl.thəm/.
  • Filleul Street, Dunedin: pronounced /fɪ.'luː.əl/.
  • Jervois Street, Dunedin: pronounced /'dʒər.vɔɪs/.
  • Levin: pronounced /lə.'vɪn/.
  • Te Puke: pronounced /te.'pʊ.ke/.

In the United Kingdom

In the United States

Place-name terms

  • In Southern California, locals generally use the article "the" preceding the number of a freeway. Northern California locals generally do not use "the" before a numerical freeway name. For example, Southern Californians usually refer to Highway 101 as "The 101," whereas Northern Californians will refer to it as simply "101."[71][72] By comparison, people in the rest of the United States more often precede a freeway's route number with its highway classification, as in "U.S. 101" for a Federal highway or "Interstate 5" or "I-5" for an interstate highway.[73]
  • Long-time and/or Democratic residents of Washington, D.C., often refer to Reagan National Airport by its older nickname, "National," out of habit or political pique, while Republicans and visitors are more likely to call it “Reagan National”.[74]
  • Additionally, some residents of the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area will refer to it as "The DMV" (the District, Maryland, and Virginia, specifically referencing the Fairfax, Alexandria, and Arlington Counties of Virginia; the city itself; and the Montgomery and Prince George's Counties of Maryland). This frequently leads to outsiders confusing it with the local Department of Motor Vehicles or "Delmarva", the portmanteau of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia (referring to the combined areas of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Eastern Shore of Virginia, and Delaware), both of which can also be abbreviated to "DMV".[citation needed]
  • In the San Francisco Bay Area, San Francisco is generally referred to by its full name, "SF" or as “the City”. In contrast, new residents and people from other parts of the US will often say "San Fran", clearly distinguishing transplants from locals.[citation needed]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The context was the crossing of the River Jordan; according to Speiser 1942, p. 10 the medieval Hebrew commentators and most modern scholars have understood it in this alternative sense.

References

  1. ↑ Wahrig Deutsches Wörterbuch, Sixth Edition and "Schibboleth". Meyers Lexikon online. http://lexikon.meyers.de/meyers/Schibboleth. 
  2. ↑ "shibboleth". American Heritage Dictionary, Fourth Edition. http://www.tfd.com/shibboleth. "shibboleth". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. http://m-w.com/dictionary/shibboleth.  (this latter meaning is not in use in Modern Hebrew)
  3. ↑ Isaiah 27:12
  4. ↑ Speiser, E. A. (February 1942). "The Shibboleth Incident (Judges 12:6)". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (University of Chicago Press) 85 (85): 10–13. doi:10.2307/1355052. 
  5. ↑ Hendel, Ronald S. (February 1996). "Sibilants and šibbōlet (Judges. 12:6)". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (University of Chicago Press) 301 (301): 69–75. doi:10.2307/1357296. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Richard Hess; Daniel I. Block; Dale W. Manor (12 January 2016). Joshua, Judges, and Ruth. Zondervan. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-310-52759-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1gzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT352. 
  7. ↑ Phil Lee (2002), The rough guide to Bruges & Ghent, pp. 22–3, ISBN 9781858288888, https://books.google.com/books?id=iO_qLu8JossC 
  8. ↑ McNamara, Timothy; Carsten Roever (2006). Language testing: the social dimension. John Wiley and Sons. p. 153. ISBN 978-1-4051-5543-4. 
  9. ↑ Sa dì de s´acciappa – Dramma storico in due tempi e sette quadri, Piero Marcialis, 1996, Condaghes
  10. ↑ "Greate Pier fan Wûnseradiel" (in Western Frisian). Gemeente Wûnseradiel. http://www.wunseradiel.nl/index.php?simaction=content&pagid=289&mediumid=1. Retrieved 4 January 2008. 
  11. ↑ Centro Virtual Cervantes. "III Congreso Internacional de la Lengua Española. Paneles y ponencias. Raúl Ávila". congresosdelalengua.es. http://congresosdelalengua.es/rosario/ponencias/internacional/avila_r.htm. 
  12. ↑ Chronicles of London; Oxford University Press, 1905; ed. C. L. Kingsford; pp. XXXVI, 15
  13. ↑ "Heikki Ylikangas, Tie Tampereelle". http://www.uta.fi/koskivoimaa/valta/1918-40/venalai1.htm. 
  14. ↑ "Untitled Document". upenn.edu. http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/shibboleth.html. 
  15. ↑ Shahmuratian. Sumgait Tragedy, Interview with Vanya Bazyan, p. 159; also: Vahagn Martirosyan, interview (Alexandre Billette, Hervé Dez (2014) - Transkraïna, online, retrieved 2014.02.13
  16. ↑ Węgłowski, Adam (21 June 2012). "Soczewica, Koło, Miele Młyn z Albertem" (in Polish). Focus.pl. http://historia.focus.pl/polska/soczewica-kolo-miele-mlyn-z-albertem-1091. Retrieved 13 June 2016. 
  17. ↑ Modern values, not tradition, kept Japanese public calm. China.org.cn. Retrieved 30 May 2023
  18. ↑ [관동대학살 90년] "주고엔 고짓센(한국인이 발음 어려운 일본어·15엔 50전이란 뜻) 발음해봐"… 조선인 색출해 길거리서 칼·죽창 살해. Chosun.com. Retrieved 3 October 2023
  19. ↑ "Скажи паляниця: чому саме це слово вибрали для ідентифікації російських військових" (in uk). https://apostrophe.ua/ua/news/society/2022-02-28/skaji-palyanitsya-pochemu-imenno-eto-slovo-vyibrali-dlya-identifikatsii-russkih-voennyih/260879. 
  20. ↑ ""Поляніца": російська пропагандистка Скабєєва не змогла правильно вимовити "перевіркове" українське слово" (in uk). March 2022. https://tsn.ua/svit/polyanica-rosiyska-propagandistva-skabyeyeva-ne-zmogla-pravilno-vimoviti-perevirkove-ukrayinske-slovo-1992655.html. 
  21. ↑ Ambrose, Stephen E. (1994). D-Day. New York: Touchstone. p. 191. ISBN 0-684-80137-X. 
  22. ↑ Ross, Stuart. Teach Yourself - The Middle East Since 1945. Hodder Education. p. 98. 
  23. ↑ Middlebrook, Martin (2012). The Falklands War. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Military. p. 357. ISBN 978-1-84884-636-4. 
  24. ↑ "Nairobi siege: What we know". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24189116. Retrieved 22 September 2013. "An Indian man who was standing next to him was asked for the name of the Prophet's mother and when he was unable to answer, he was shot dead, the witness told him." 
  25. ↑ "Explosions inside mall as stand-off nears end". The New Zealand Herald. Agence France-Presse. 25 September 2013. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=11129542. Retrieved 26 September 2013. 
  26. ↑ "Peace groups warn of empty victory in Zambo siege". The Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. 27 September 2013. http://pcij.org/blog/2013/09/27/peace-groups-warn-of-empty-victory-in-zambo-siege. Retrieved 31 March 2015. 
  27. ↑ "Nu.nl-column: 'De trein rijdt van zijn naar zijn' | Genootschap Onze Taal | Onze Taal". https://onzetaal.nl/de-trein-rijdt-van-zijn-naar-zijn/. 
  28. ↑ Ilka Ludwig (2007), Identification of New Zealand English and Australian English based on stereotypical accent markers, p. 22, doi:10.26021/4611, http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/985 
  29. ↑ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren (2008), New Zealand English: phonology, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 
  30. ↑ Philippe Laplace; Eric Tabuteau (2003). Cities on the Margin, on the Margin of Cities: Representations of Urban Space in Contemporary Irish and British Fiction. Presses Univ. Franche-Comté. p. 186. ISBN 978-2-84867-018-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=wnFz_ZIfBgsC&pg=PA186. 
  31. ↑ Cynthia Cockburn (1998). The Space Between Us: Negotiating Gender and National Identities in Conflict. Zed Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-85649-618-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=gPGDLH5gUvAC&pg=PA51. 
  32. ↑ Frederick Ludowyk. "AB(H)OMINABLE (H)AITCH". Ozwords. Australian National Dictionary Centre. http://andc.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/Ozwords%20June%201998.pdf. 
  33. ↑ Think. International Business Machines Corp.. 1958. p. 9. https://books.google.com/books?id=bcUOAQAAMAAJ. 
  34. ↑ Science Digest. Science Digest, Incorporated. 1958. p. 44. https://books.google.com/books?id=NbgPAAAAIAAJ. 
  35. ↑ Blame Canada and Molson for brilliant 'Rant' at States, Advertising Age, 8 May 2000
  36. ↑ Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition. Melbourne: The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd.. 2005. ISBN 1-876429-14-3. 
  37. ↑ Wells, J. C. (John Christopher) (2008). Longman pronunciation dictionary (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Education Limited/Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. OCLC 213400485. 
  38. ↑ "How you say ‘Calgary’ says a lot". 2015-02-20. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/alberta/how-you-say-calgary-says-a-lot/article23138241/. 
  39. ↑ Story, George Morley, et al., Dictionary of Newfoundland English (Toronto, University of Toronto Press:1982), "Newfoundland", p. 344.
  40. ↑ Merriam-Webster Audio File, Regina, http://www.merriam-webster.com/audio.php?file=ggregi01&word=Regina&text= 
  41. ↑ "You heard what? Because Jon Ryan went to University of Regina". CJME. 2 February 2015. http://cjme.com/story/you-heard-what-because-jon-ryan-went-university-regina/531688. 
  42. ↑ Saskatchewan book of everything : everything you wanted to know about Saskatchewan and were going to ask anyway. Riess, Kelly.. Lunenburg, N.S.: MacIntyre Purcell Pub. 2007. ISBN 978-0-9738063-9-7. OCLC 166321297. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/166321297. 
  43. ↑ "Urban Toronto How do you pronounce 'Toronto' — Where is this Trawna thing coming from?". https://urbantoronto.ca/forum/threads/post-how-do-you-pronounce-toronto.4133/.  Compiled by Rob Roberts of the ‘National Post’, with citations from Judy Maddren of the CBC, and Jack Chambers, Professor of Linguistics at the University of Toronto
  44. ↑ "J.K. (Jack) Chambers, Professor of Linguistics, University of Toronto". http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/.  1967-70 Ph.D. University of Alberta. General Linguistics
  45. ↑ "Curriculum Vitae for J.K. (Jack) Chambers, Ph.D.". http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/CV.pdf.  Professor of Linguistics, University of Toronto; (in .PDF format and current to January 2020).
  46. ↑ Campbell, Meagan (9 July 2019). "National Post Day-Oner Rob Roberts appointed new editor-in-chief: 'I'm a Postie to my bones'". National Post. https://nationalpost.com/news/national-post-day-oner-rob-roberts-appointed-as-its-new-editor-in-chief-im-a-postie-to-my-bones. 
  47. ↑ "Postmedia names Rob Roberts editor-in-chief of National Post - BNN Bloomberg". 8 July 2019. https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/postmedia-names-rob-roberts-editor-in-chief-of-national-post-1.1284060. 
  48. ↑ Walsh, Kayla (March 29, 2017). "Seven Dublin place names people ALWAYS get wrong". http://www.dublinlive.ie/whats-on/seven-dublin-place-names-people-12815793. 
  49. ↑ "Pronunciations - James Joyce Online Notes". http://www.jjon.org/joyce-s-words/pronunciations. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "19 Irish Place Names That Tourists Will Absolutely Love". https://lovin.ie/entertainment/19-irish-place-names-that-tourists-will-absolutely-love. 
  51. ↑ dublin.ie/live/stories/dublin-treasures-the-iveagh-gardens
  52. ↑ "DEBATE: How Do YOU Pronounce Ranelagh?". https://lovindublin.com/news/debate-how-do-you-pronounce-ranelagh. 
  53. ↑ "Casino shuffles the pack with revamp". blackpoolgazette.co.uk. http://www.blackpoolgazette.co.uk/news/business/local-business/casino-shuffles-the-pack-with-revamp-1-6275895. 
  54. ↑ Jones, Daniel, eds. P.Roach, J.Setter and J.Esling Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary, 18th Edition, 2011, Cambridge University Press
  55. ↑ Walls, David (2006). "Appalachia." The Encyclopedia of Appalachia (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press), pp. 1006–07.
  56. ↑ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1993), p. 102.
  57. ↑ Kelley, Jacques (1992-04-29). "Neighborhood tour may shed light on Druid Hill Park's 'under-appreciated jewel'". Baltimore Sun. https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1992-04-29-1992120162-story.html. 
  58. ↑ Green, Julia (25 August 2010). "Idaho Pronunciation Guide – Say it like a local". Boise Weekly. http://www.boiseweekly.com/boise/idaho-pronunciation-guide/Content?oid=1749831. 
  59. ↑ Greiner, Tony; Bridgewater, Rachel (2014). "Portland: An eclectic introduction". College & Research Libraries News 75 (8): 422–426. doi:10.5860/crln.75.8.9173. 
  60. ↑ "New York Bookshelf; An Oddly Named Street, A Dark Night, a Gamy Club". The New York Times: p. CY12. 8 February 2004. 
  61. ↑ Kirk, Sam (2022-01-04). "West Virginia place names you might be saying wrong". WBOY-TV (Clarksburg, West Virginia). https://www.wboy.com/news/west-virginia/west-virginia-place-names-you-might-be-saying-wrong/. 
  62. ↑ "Ask 2: Why is Kuykendahl pronounced ‘kEr ken-dAHl?'". KPRC-TV (Houston, Texas). 2020-09-17. https://www.click2houston.com/news/local/2020/09/15/ask-2-why-is-kuykendahl-pronounced-ker-ken-dahl/. 
  63. ↑ "Facts for Kids: Miami Indians (Miamis)". Bigorrin.org. http://www.bigorrin.org/miami_kids.htm. Retrieved 31 July 2018. 
  64. ↑ "Indian History at Hicksville-Ohio.com". http://www.hicksville-ohio.com/History/history2.htm. 
  65. ↑ "Faq". http://www.miamination.com/faq.html. 
  66. ↑ Dorman, Jim (February 4, 2020). "Natchitoches native makes Company's 'Steel Magnolias' bloom with authenticity". The Patriot Ledger (Worcester, Massachusetts). https://www.patriotledger.com/entertainmentlife/20200204/theater-natchitoches-native-makes-companys-steel-magnolias-bloom-with-authenticity. 
  67. ↑ Block, Melissa (January 23, 2014). "Natchi — What's It Now? A Local Sets Us Straight". All Things Considered. https://www.npr.org/2014/01/23/265358227/natchi-whats-it-now-a-tour-guide-sets-us-straight. 
  68. ↑ "Nevada County - Encyclopedia of Arkansas". encyclopediaofarkansas.net. http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=794. 
  69. ↑ "Quincy, MA - 404". Quincyma.gov. http://www.quincyma.gov/Utilities/faq.cfm#15. Retrieved 31 July 2018. 
  70. ↑ Connelly, Dolly (1 March 1970). "Mush!...And Then Some: A Tour of the Great Northwest". Los Angeles Times West Magazine (Los Angeles): 20–30. 
  71. ↑ Geyer, G. (2001). ""The" Freeway in Southern California". American Speech 76 (2): 221–224. doi:10.1215/00031283-76-2-221. 
  72. ↑ "Roadshow: The Debate on Highway Names Roars On". The San Jose Mercury News. 23 October 2015. http://www.mercurynews.com/mr-roadshow/ci_29015047/roadshow-debate-highway-names-roars. 
  73. ↑ "Why Southern Californians Say "The" Before Freeway Numbers". Mental Floss. 21 November 2015. http://mentalfloss.com/article/71459/why-southern-californians-say-freeway-numbers. 
  74. ↑ "National? Reagan? DCA? 17 years later, locals still can't agree on the name of the airport in question.". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/express/wp/2015/03/31/national-reagan-dca-17-years-later-locals-still-cant-agree-on-the-name-of-the-airport-in-question/. 



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