Religion:Babaylan

From HandWiki
1922: a shaman of the Itneg people renewing an offering to the spirit (anito) of a warrior's shield (kalasag)[1]
A performer depicting a shaman in a recent Babaylan Festival of Bago, Negros Occidental

Babaylan (also balian or katalonan, among many other names) were shamans of the various ethnic groups of the pre-colonial Philippines . These shamans specialized in communicating, appeasing, or harnessing the spirits of the dead and the spirits of nature.[2] They were almost always women or feminized men (asog or bayok). They were believed to have spirit guides, by which they could contact and interact with the spirits and deities (anito or diwata) and the spirit world. Their primary role were as mediums during pag-anito séance rituals. There were also various subtypes of babaylan specializing in the arts of healing and herbalism, divination, and sorcery.[3]

Babaylan were highly respected members of the community, on par with the pre-colonial noble class.[4][5][6] In the absence of the datu (head of the domain), the babaylan takes in the role of interim head of the domain.[2] Babaylans were powerful ritual specialists who had influence over the weather, and can tap various spirits in the natural and spiritual realms. Babaylans were held in such high regard as they were believed to possess powers that can block the dark magic of an evil datu or spirit and heal the sick or wounded. Among other powers of the babaylan were to ensure a safe pregnancy and child birth. As a spiritual medium, babaylans also lead rituals with offerings to the various divinities or deities. As an expert in divine and herb lore, incantations, and concoctions of remedies, antidotes, and a variety of potions from various roots, leaves, and seeds, the babaylans were also regarded as allies of certain datus in subjugating an enemy, hence, the babaylans were also known for their specialization in medical and divine combat.[2]

Their influence waned when most of the ethnic groups of the Philippines were converted to Islam and Catholicism. Under the Spanish Empire, babaylan were often maligned and falsely accused as witches and "priests of the devil" and were persecuted harshly by the Spanish clergy. In modern Philippine society, their roles have largely been taken over by folk healers, which are now predominantly male, while some are still being falsely accused as "witches".[2][7][8][9] In areas where the people have not been converted into Muslims or Christians, notably ancestral domains of indigenous peoples, the shamans and their cultural traits have continued to exist with their respective communities, although these shamans and their practices are being slowly diluted by Abrahamic religions.[2]

Etymology

A ritual of the Iraya Mangyan to prepare land for kaingin (swidden farming)

Babaylan and related terms are derived from Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian *balian, meaning "shaman" (probably originally female, transvestite, or hermaphroditic) or "medium". Various cognates in other non-Filipino Austronesian languages include babalian, bobolian, and bobohizan (Kadazan-Dusun); wadian (Ma'anyan); belian (Iban); belian (Malay); walen or walyan (Old Javanese); balian (Balinese); bolian (Mongondaw); balia (Uma); wulia or balia (Bare'e); balia (Wolio); balian (Ngaju); and balieng (Makassar).[10]

The linguist Otto Dempwolff has theorized that it may ultimately be derived from Proto-Austronesian *bali ("escort", "accompany") with the suffix *-an, in the meaning of "one who escorts a soul to the other world (a psychopomp)".[11] However, the linguists Robert Blust and Stephen Trussel have noted that there is no evidence that *balian is a suffixed form, and thus believe that Dempwolff's interpretation is incorrect.[10]

Terminology

The most common term for shamans in the Philippines are baylan, balian, or cognates and spelling variants thereof.[6] However, different ethnic groups had different names for shamans, including shamans with specialized roles. These include:[4][10][12]


  • Abaknon: tambalan[13]
  • Aeta/Agta: anitu, puyang (also poyang, pawang, pauang), huhak (diviner)
  • Bagobo: mabalian[14]
  • Balanguingui: duwarta[15]
  • Banwaon: babaiyon (also the female datu of the tribe)[16]
  • Bikol: balyán, balyán-a, balyana, paraanito, paradiwata
  • Bukidnon: baylan
  • Gaddang: mailang[17]
  • Hanunó'o: balyán, balyán-an
  • Higaonon: baylan[18]
  • Ibaloi: mambunong[19]
  • Igorot (Ifugao): mandadawak, dawak, insupak, mon-lapu, tumunoh, alpogan, mumbaki, manalisig (apprentice)
  • Ilocano: baglan, mangoodan, manilao, mangalag (medium), mangngagas (herbalist)
  • Isneg: alopogan, dorarakit, anitowan[20]
  • Itneg: mandadawak, alpogan
  • Ivatan: machanitu (medium), maymay (midwife), mamalak (diviner)[21]
  • Kankana-ey: manbunong (medium), mansib-ok (healer), mankotom (diviner, also mankutom)
  • Kapampangan: katulunan (also catulunan)
  • Karay-a: ma-aram, mangindaloan (healer), soliran (diviner, also soli-an)[22]
  • Lumad: balian, balyan, mabalian
  • Maguindanao: walian (female shaman, midwife), pendarpa'an (medium), pedtompan (medium), tabib (healer), pangagamot ([apprentice] healer, also ebpamanggamut), ebpamangalamat (diviner)[23][24]
  • Mamanwa: baylan, binulusan, sarok, tambajon (healer, also tambalon)
  • Mandaya: baylan, balyan, baliyan
  • Manobo: beylan, baylanen (also baylanon), manhuhusay (mediator, keeper of traditions, also tausay), manukasey (healer against sorcery),[25] walian or walyan, diwata (head shaman)[26]
  • Maranao: walian, pamomolong[27]
  • Palaw'an: beljan
  • Sama-Bajau: balyan, wali jinn, dukun, papagan, pawang, bomoh, kalamat (diviner),[28] panday (healer, midwife)[29]
  • Sarangani: magbulungay[16]
  • Subanen: balian, tanguiling
  • Suludnon: banawangon
  • Tagalog: katalonan (also katalona, catalona, catalonan), manganito, sonat, anitera (or anitero), lubus (herbalist), manggagagamot (healer), manghuhula or pangatahoan (diviner), hilot (midwife)
  • Talaandig: walian
  • Tausug: mangubat (also mangungubat, magubat),[30] pagalamat (diviner)[31]
  • Tagbanwa: bawalyan, babaylan
  • T'boli: tao d'mangaw,[32] tao mulung (healer)
  • Visayan: babaylan (also babailán, babailana), baylan (also balyan, balian, baliana, vaylan), daetan (also daytan, daitan), katooran (also catooran), mamumuhat, makinaadmanon, diwatera (or diwatero), anitera (or anitero), mananambal (healer), himagan (healer), siruhano (herbalist), manghuhula or manghihila (diviner), mananabang (midwife)
  • Yakan: bahasa


Initiation

Itneg shamans (the two women in the foreground) conducting a sayang ritual (c. 1922)[1]

Most babaylan inherited their status from an older babaylan they were voluntarily apprenticed to, usually a relative.[4] In some cultures, like among the Isneg people, older shamans can choose apprentices from among the eligible young women of the village.[20][33]

A few, however, become babaylan after experiencing what has been termed a "shamanistic initiatory crisis" (also "shamanic illness" or "shamanic madness").[6][20][34] This includes serious or chronic illnesses, near-death experiences, sudden seizures and trembling, depression, strange events or behavior (including climbing balete trees or disappearing for several days with no memory of the events), bouts of insanity (including those induced by psychological trauma from a past event), and strange visions or dreams. These are regarded as encounters with the spirits, where the soul of the person is said to be journeying to the spirit world. In cases like this, it is said that a spirit chose the person, rather than the other way around.[4][13][20]

After being chosen, shamans go through an initiation rite. These rites are meant to gain or transfer the patronage of a spirit. Among Visayans, this ritual is known as the tupad or tupadan. In cases of people with "shamanic illness", these initiation rites are regarded as the cure, where the initiate regains health or sanity by conceding to the wishes of the spirits and "answering the call". When volunteered rather than volunteering, their relatives are usually required to pay a large fee to the senior shaman for the training. Initiation rites can range from simply inducing a trance through herbs or alcohol, to inducing personal crises through physical or psychological hardship.[20][35] Extreme examples of initiation rites include getting buried alive or being immersed in water overnight.[13]

After initiation, the apprentices are then trained in the details of their role. This training includes learning about the rituals, the chants and songs, the sacrifices appropriate for each spirit, oral histories, herbs and healing practices, and magic spells, among others. They usually assist the senior shaman during ceremonies until their training is complete, which can take months to years. Each shaman can have one or more such apprentices, at varying ranks or specializations.[20][35]

Spirit guides

An Ifugao mumbaki overseeing the ritual sacrifice of a pig during the dipdipo ritual

The shaman's power to communicate with the spirit world is derived from their spirit companions that guide them and intercede for them. These spirits are usually referred to in euphemistic terms like abyan ("friend"), alagad or bantay ("guardian"), or gabay ("guide"), among other terms. Shamans have at least one abyan, with more powerful shamans having many. Certain individuals like powerful leaders or warriors (especially those with shaman relatives) are also believed to have their own abyan that give them magical powers. Abyan are also believed to guide, teach, and inspire skilled artists and craftsmen in the community.[6][35][36][37]

Abyan spirits can be ancestor spirits, but they are more commonly non-human spirits. Shamans either had spirit companions from birth, drew their attention during the "shamanic illness", or gained their allegiance during initiation into shamanism. Spirits are believed to be social beings, with individual quirks and personalities (both good and bad). The friendship of abyan depend on reciprocity. The shamans do not command them. People with abyan must regularly offer sacrifices to these spirits, usually consisting of food, alcoholic drinks, ngangà, and blood from a sacrificial animal (usually a chicken or a pig)[note 1] in order to maintain good relations. This friendship of abyan, once earned, is enduring. They become, in essence, part of the family. The abyan of a deceased shaman will often "return" to a living relative who might choose to become a shaman as well.[36][37][38][39]

The abyan are essential in shamanistic rituals as they prevent the shaman's soul from getting lost in the spirit world. They also communicate entreaties on behalf of the shaman to more powerful spirits or deities, as well as fight evil spirits during healing or exorcism rituals.[40]

Sex and gender

Itneg potters, the person on the right is a bayok in female attire (c. 1922)[1]

In most Philippine ethnic groups, shamans were predominantly female due to the role of the shaman (especially the medium) being an intrinsically feminine one.[41] Among the minority of males, most belonged to a special class of shamans—the feminized men known as asog in the Visayas and bayok in Luzon.[note 2] The asog assumed the voice, mannerisms, hairstyle, and dress of females. They were treated as women by the community and worked in traditionally feminine professions like shamanism, pottery, and weaving.[1][20][41][42][43][44][45]

In Historia de las islas e indios de Bisayas (1668), the Spanish historian and missionary Francisco Ignacio Alcina records that the asog became shamans by virtue of being themselves. Unlike female shamans, they neither needed to be chosen nor did they undergo initiation rites. However, not all asog trained to become shamans.[42][46]

Nevertheless, male shamans remained rare in some areas. The Bolinao Manuscript (1685), for example, records that during an Inquisitional investigation of the shamans in the town of Bolinao between 1679 and 1685, animistic paraphernalia were confiscated from 148 people. Of those, 145 were female shamans, and the remaining three were transvestite male shamans.[41] Although this rarity of feminine male shamans may have not always been the case in all ethnic groups. Castano (1895) states that the people of Bicol would hold a thanksgiving ritual called atang that was "presided" by an "effeminate" priest called an asog. His female counterpart, called a baliana, assisted him and led the women in singing what was called the soraki, in honor of Gugurang.[47]

Babaylan can freely marry and have children,[9] including male asog who were recorded by early Spanish colonists as being married to men.[42][46][note 3] In some ethnic groups, marriage was a prerequisite for gaining full shaman status.[41]

After the Spanish conquest of the Philippines, the practice of shamanism became clandestine due to persecution by the Catholic clergy. During this period, male shamans (particularly those specialized in the non-religious arts of herbalism and healing) became predominant. Female shamans became less common, while asog (shaman or otherwise) were punished harshly and driven to hiding.[48] The change in women's status and the ostracization of the asog, however, did not immediately change the originally feminine role of the shamans. Male shamans in the late 17th century still dressed as women during rituals, even though they didn't do so in their day-to-day activities. Unlike the ancient asog, they did not have sexual relations with other men, and indeed, but not all times, were usually married to women.[41]

Roles

Spirit mediums

Ato, a fertility god of the Bontoc people

The primary role of shamans were as spirit mediums.[4] They were intermediaries between the physical world and the spirit world, due to their ability to influence and interact with the spirits (anito), both malevolent and benevolent.[45]

There are two general types of spirits usually interacted with in séance rituals. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar to genii loci). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or totems of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors.[37][49]

The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms,[note 4] have gender differentiation, and have personal names.[note 5] They are most similar to the fairies of European folklore.[note 6] These are the most common types of spirits to become abyan, as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as engkanto (from Spanish encanto) in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.[37]

These categories are not static, however. A bound spirit can become unbound, and vice versa. Some shamans have spirit guides which are originally nature spirits that have become unbound.[37]

Not all shamanic rituals result in spirit possession. Unbound spirits always possess shamans during rituals. Either voluntarily or involuntarily. In contrast, bound spirits, as a rule, do not possess shamans. Instead, they are simply spoken to by the shaman. Bound spirits that inadvertently "stick" to humans are considered dangerous, and are the causes of spiritual illnesses, ranging from confusion, strange food cravings, lust, to unreasoning anger. Sometimes in order to speak to certain bound spirits, the shaman may need the intercession of their abyan, who in turn will possess the shaman. Bound spirits can also be interacted with by non-shamans, like when offering sacrifices to the spirit of the forest before a hunt.[37]

Healing

Healing was the most important role for shamans in their communities. Shamans distinguished between two kinds of illnesses, the natural (or non-spiritual) illnesses, and the spiritual illnesses. Natural illnesses do not require a shaman for healing, while spiritual illnesses do.[50][51]

Like in other Austronesian cultures, animistic Filipinos believed in the concept of soul dualism (sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls"). A person is believed to be composed of at least two souls—the breath of life (ginhawa or hininga, which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (the kalag or kaluluwa, which can travel to the spirit world).[note 7] The ginhawa is believed to reside in the pit of the stomach (usually the liver), while the kalag resides in the head. The ginhawa represents the person's body and bodily urges; while the kalag represents the person's identity, mind, and strength of will. Both are required in a living person.[50][52][53][54]

Natural illnesses are the result of damage to the ginhawa. While they do not require a shaman, they are still important, as the death of the ginhawa will also mean the death of the body. They can range from wounds, broken bones, poisoning, and snakebites. These can be treated by skilled shamans, but were more often relegated to apprentices or assistants specializing in healing or herbalism.[50][52][54]

Spiritual illnesses, on the other hand, are believed to be caused by the separation of the kalag from the ginhawa (referred to as "soul loss" in anthropological literature). This separation happens normally during sleep, where the kalag detaches to travel through the spirit world, resulting in dreams. However, when this separation happens when the person is awake, it results in spiritual illnesses. The causes of the separation can include the kalag getting lost in the spirit world; the kalag being captured, attacked, or seduced by another spirit; or simply the refusal of the kalag to return to the ginhawa. While it is not immediately lethal, the loss of the kalag can result in the loss of the person's mind and identity—thus insanity. Spiritual illnesses also include delirium, depression, trauma, fainting spells, and other mental illnesses. Evil or undesirable behavior may also be blamed on disharmony between the kalag and the ginhawa.[50][52][54][55]

Shamans may also perform rituals to heal and strengthen the kalag of a person. These include the ritual of batak dungan or batakan among Visayan shamans. It strengthens and empowers the kalag of a person to prepare them for challenges, problems and obstacles. This ritual also protects the person from possible spiritual attack caused by malevolent spirits and sorcery.[54]

Traditional massage

Aside from rituals and herbal medicine, an ubiquitous traditional healing method done by shamans and healers is massage with oils (lana) known as hilot or haplos.[note 8] It is still commonly practiced to this day.[19][56][57]

Divination

The rotation of the bakunawa in a calendar year, as explained in Mansueto Porras' Signosan (1919)

Divination was closely tied to healing, as it was primarily used for diagnosing illnesses. It can be done by the shamans or by specialized apprentices with the necessary skill. Various paraphernalia and rituals are used to diagnose illnesses, examples include seashells, ginger, quartz or alum crystals (tawas), and chicken entrails. Diviners have names that indicate their preferred methods. For example, a diviner using alum crystals is known as a magtatawas, while a diviner that prefers to conduct a ritual known as luop is known as a mangluluop.[57]

Diviners are also able to foretell the future and perform geomancy rituals. A key mythological creature used in babaylan geomancy in the Visayas is the bakunawa (or naga), usually depicted as a gigantic serpent or dragon with a looped tail. The movements of the bakunawa affected the physical world, from the phases of the moon, to eclipses, the weather, floods, and earthquakes. The bakunawa was central to a sixteen-point compass rose. It faces a different cardinal direction every three months; facing north (aminhan), west (katungdan), south (bagatnan), and east (sidlangan) in a given twelve-month lunar year. The mouth of the bakunawa is believed to bring misfortune and evil, and various points in the compass all had different aspects depending on where the mouth was facing. These were consulted when making future plans like travel, trade, or marriage. When building houses, shamans were also often consulted to determine the most propitious placement of the foundations to avoid the ill luck brought by the bakunawa.[6][note 9]

Sorcery

Some shamans were believed to be able to control the physical world through incantations, talismans, potions, or their spirit intermediaries.[37][58][note 10] Healers are more strongly associated with sorcerers than mediums. In most cases, a healer is also a sorcerer. In order to cure or counteract sorcerous illnesses, healers must themselves know sorcery.[51] This relationship is most apparent in Siquijor Island, where healer-sorcerers are still common.[59][60][61]

In some cultures like the Manobo people, shamans are entirely differentiated from sorcerers. Shamans deal with the spirit world and supernatural beings but do not have magical powers of their own; while sorcerers were regarded as human beings with powers gained from magical spells or objects. Illnesses believed to be caused by sorcery are treated differently from illnesses caused by spirits. The former are treated with counter-spells, simple antidotes, and physical healing; while the latter requires the intervention or dialogue with the spirits and thus a shaman ritual.[37]

In contrast, in Visayan societies, the most powerful shamans were sorcerers known as dalagangan (also dalongdongan or busalian). They could purportedly command the elements through magic spells and the strength of their kalag (or dungan) which was equated with "[spiritual] power".[note 11] Their alleged powers include conjuring fire or water, flight, shape-shifting, invisibility, invulnerability, and the ability to call down disasters. The dios-dios leaders of the Visayan peasant revolts in the late 19th century often claimed to possess these kinds of powers.[6][50][62] A more common use of the power to command elements is rainmaking. A notable example was Estrella Bangotbanwa, a Karay-a ma-aram from southern Iloilo. According to local legend, she alleviated a three-year drought by performing a ritual that summoned a rainstorm.[22][63]

Sorcery was not restricted to shamans, but were also a common claim for leaders and warrior-heroes. In the pre-Islamic Maranao society depicted in the Darangen epic poem, heroes are born with "twin spirits" (tonong in Maranao) that grant them superhuman abilities. King Awilawil o Ndaw of the kingdom of Kaibat a Kadaan for example, has a tonong named Salindagaw Masingir that can take the aspect of typhoons, floods, and pillars of fire; while King Dalondong a Mimbantas of the kingdom of Gindolongan Marogong has a tonong named Mabokelod a Romba which took the form of a giant crocodile.[64][65][66]

Talismans and potions

Black magic

Main page: Religion:Barang (magic)

Sorcerers are also believed to have powers that cause harm to other people covertly. Healer-sorcerers who practice this kind of sorcery usually justify it as a form of criminal punishment, as a widespread belief is that black magic does not work on people who are innocent. Their targets are usually "wrongdoers" like thieves, adulterous spouses, or land grabbers. There are also "true" sorcerers who are said to have hereditary sorcerous powers. Unlike healers, they do not consider the justice of their actions. The latter type of sorcerers are often conflated with the evil supernatural beings capable of appearing human, like aswang and manananggal.[37][59][67]

One of the most common kinds of black magic is a malevolent use of sympathetic magic. This is known by various names like kulam, gaway (Tagalog); barang, hiwit, lágà (Visayan); tanem, tamay (Ilocano); and pantak (Moro). Despite the differences in terminology, the methods are almost identical across the Philippine islands (and indeed, across Southeast Asia). This type of sorcery uses beetles, effigies, poppets, a boiling pot or some other type of representation of the target victim.[note 12] These are usually "linked" by including bodily exuviae like hair or nail clippings. These are activated by chants, spells, or symbols (sometimes syncretized with Christian or Muslim rituals). The sorcerer then either harms the effigy to cause corresponding harm to the victim, or physically "sends" objects into the victim's body (which can range from insects, stones, to pins).[6][67] In some instances, the ingredients of the ritual themselves determine the effects. For example, adding seawater to a boiling pot "linked" to a victim is said to cause the victim's belly to swell and ache in time with the tides.[51] This type of sorcery was documented as early as the 17th century by Francisco Combés.[6][67]

Other malevolent powers are more direct. These include the ability to kill another person instantly with magic spells, the ability to cast curses or the evil eye, the ability to "abduct" a person's soul, or the ability to send evil spirits or familiar animals to possess or harm the victim.[37][67]

Some of these purportedly sorcerous powers may be explained by the use of poisons (hilo or lason) and sleight of hand. In most cases however, accusations of this type of black magic are often borne out of paranoia, moral panic, or mass hysteria against disliked or mistrusted members of the community, similar to the European witch-hunts. People accused of black magic were often subject to ostracization and in many cases, violence. This was especially true during the Spanish colonial period, where in one instance in the mid-19th century, a Filipino curate ordered the assassination of 57 people he suspected were sorcerers casting evil spells on his sick mother.[67]

Sorcerous "attacks" are most commonly treated with sumbalik (counter-spells or antidotes), which are themselves, a form of sorcery and do not usually require interaction with the spirits. They purportedly deflect the effects of the curse and return it to the caster. In extreme cases, sumbalik can kill the caster. Other healing rituals against sorcery do not harm the caster, but instead supposedly moves them to pity and thus revoke the curse.[51][61][68]

Persecution, decline, and syncretization

The Spanish colonization of the Philippines and the introduction of Catholic Christianity resulted in the extinction of most native shamanistic practices. Christianity was initially seen by native Filipinos as another type of anito. The Spanish missionaries exploited this misconception in their successful conversion and occupation of most of the islands with minimal military support. Spanish friars were seen as "shamans" whose souls and spirit guides were apparently more powerful than the native ones. They desecrated religious objects, sacred trees, and sacred areas with impunity, earning the awe of the natives. They could also cure various diseases that the native shamans could not.[40]

By the late 16th century, Christian symbols and paraphernalia (like rosaries, crucifixes, and holy water) became fetish objects, and Latin prayers and verses became part of the shaman's repertoire of magical chants and spells. Anito images (taotao) were replaced by Catholic idols and their rituals syncretized, including attributing anito-like powers to them like miraculous healing from touching them or an ability to possess people.[note 13] These flourished as they were tolerated by the Spanish clergy as "white magic". Nature spirits (diwata) during this period were also syncretized with the friars themselves, they became known as engkanto and began to be described as having European features with a propensity for deceiving, seducing, and playing tricks on people.[6][20][40]

The previously high status of the babaylan was lost. The role of women and the relative gender egalitarianism of Philippine animistic cultures in general became more subdued under the patriarchal culture of the Spanish. Most babaylan were stigmatized by the Catholic clergy as witches, satanists, or mentally unstable. The Spanish burned down everything they associated as connected to the native people's indigenous religions (including shrines such as the dambana), even forcefully ordering native children to defecate on their own god's idols.[2][9][69]

Performers depicting babaylans

A few shamans, however, were assimilated by the church and syncretized their roles into mysticism in the Christian context, becoming faith healers and miracle workers.[9][69] These include the beata movement in the 17th and 18th centuries, the messianic (and usually revolutionary) dios-dios movement of the late 19th century, and the espiritista (or spiritista) movement of the 20th century.[50][70][71] However, their methods of worship remain basically the same. The faith healers are still in essence, mediums; but instead of channeling anito, they instead claim to channel saints, angels, or the Holy Spirit.[19] Late-20th-century and 21st-century faith healers also frequently use western esoteric and pseudoscientific terminology and practices (like "psychic energy" and psychic surgery), with little connection to traditional shamanic religions.[50]

Others abandoned the animistic aspects of shamanism and became folk healers (arbularyo),[note 14] midwives, and practitioners of traditional hilot massage therapy with oils. These modern versions of babaylan are now usually male (except midwives). They are usually sought out in minor aliments and in illnesses that modern medicine can not diagnose or cure. Like in ancient babaylan, modern babaylan distinguish between "spiritual diseases" and "natural diseases", the latter they will usually refer to a medical doctor.[19][50][56][69]

Similarly, among Muslim Filipinos, shamans, usually male, are now relegated to folk healing and in dealing with "indigenous" spirits. All other aspects of the religious life of Muslim Filipinos have been taken over by Islamic religious leaders.[30] A direct equivalent of the Christian Filipino "faith healers" and albolaryo are Islamized shamans known as pandita or guru. They follow Islam but also provide traditional healing practices and cultural rituals retained from their shamanistic past. They usually perform minor rites like aqiqah (cutting the hair of the firstborn) and ruqqiya (exorcism).[24][72] A version of the traditional massage therapy conducted by folk healers also exist, known as agud or agod among the Maranao and Maguindanao people.[19]

The most strongly affected by this religious shift to Abrahamic religions were the feminized male asog shamans. During the 17th to 18th centuries, Spanish administrators in the Philippines burned people convicted of homosexual relations at the stake and confiscated their possessions, in accordance to a decree by the president of the Real Audiencia, Pedro Hurtado Desquibel. Several instances of such punishments were recorded by the Spanish priest Juan Francisco de San Antonio in his Chronicas de la Apostolica Provincia de San Gregorio (1738–1744).[42][73]

Feminized men were also persecuted harshly in the (then recently) Islamized ethnic groups in Mindanao. In Historia de las Islas de Mindanao, Iolo, y sus adyacentes (1667), the Spanish priest Francisco Combés records that their "unnatural crime" was punished by the Muslim peoples in Mindanao with death by burning or drowning, and that their houses and property were also burned as they believed that it was contagious.[42]

Resistance against colonial rule

A few followers of the native shamanism resisted Spanish rule and conversion, especially in areas difficult to reach for Spanish missionaries, like the highlands of Luzon and the interiors of Mindanao. In Spanish-controlled areas (especially in the Visayas), entire villages would defy the policies of reducciónes (resettlement) and move deeper into the island interiors at the instigation of their babaylan. Shamanistic rituals also continued to be performed secretly in some areas, though these were punished by the Spanish clergy when discovered.[40]

Open revolts led by shamans were common during Spanish rule. Aside from the early revolts in the 17th century, most of these were led by religious leaders who practiced Folk Catholicism rather than true shamanism.[71]

17th century

The first recorded armed revolt led by a babaylan was the Tamblot uprising of Bohol in 1621–1622. It was led by a male shaman named Tamblot who saw the spread of Catholicism as a threat. He rallied around two thousand followers in an effort to "return to the old ways", but his rebellion was crushed by the Spanish authorities with the help of converted native auxiliaries.[74]

Tamblot's revolt inspired another rebellion in neighboring Carigara, Leyte in the same time period. The Bankaw revolt was led by a datu named Bankaw and his son Pagali who was a babaylan. Bankaw's rebellion was notable as Bankaw was one of the first converts to Catholicism in the Philippines. As a young man, he had formerly welcomed the conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565 when their expedition first landed on the islands. Like Tamblot, Bankaw and Pagali both wanted a return to the old ways. Bankaw renounced his Catholic faith and built a temple to a diwata.[74] Their rebellion was defeated by the Spanish Governor-general Alonso Fajardo de Entenza. Bankaw was beheaded, while Pagali and eighty-one other babaylan were burned at the stake.[75]

The Tapar rebellion was an uprising in Iloilo, Panay led by a babaylan named Tapar in 1663. Tapar syncretized native shamanism with Catholic terminology and declared himself "God Almighty" of a new religion. He also emulated the ancient asog by dressing up in women's clothing. He and his followers killed a Spanish priest and burned the town church before escaping to the mountains. Tapar and other leaders of his movement were captured and executed by Spanish and Filipino soldiers.[74][75]

18th century

A religious uprising in 1785 in Ituy (modern Aritao), Nueva Vizcaya was led by a healer named Lagutao. He claimed that an outbreak of smallpox in northern Luzon was a result of the natives abandoning their ancestral beliefs. It was suppressed by neighboring Christian townsmen led by Dominican friars.[71]

19th century

The 19th century saw the rise of the dios-dios "shamans". Dios-dios (literally "god pretender" or "false god", from Spanish dios) were religious leaders so named because of their penchant for identifying themselves with Christian religious figures. They led cult-like religious movements, promising prosperity, supernatural powers, or healing to their followers. Most were mere charlatans selling amulets and magical pieces of paper. Their members were mostly from the illiterate rural poor who had little knowledge of formal Catholic teachings and were living in extreme poverty under colonial rule.[71]

Papa Isio with two babaylanes followers in a prison in Bacolod after his surrender to American authorities in 1907. Note his "Papal vestments" and the woman's dress worn by the man to his left.

There are numerous examples of dios-dios leaders in the 19th century. They include Lungao, a healer from Ilocos who claimed he was Jesus Christ in 1811; Ignacio Dimas, who led the "Tres Cristos" of Libmanan, Nueva Cáceres (modern Camarines Sur) who claimed they had supernatural powers over diseases in 1865; Benedicta, an old woman and a healer who called herself "La Santa de Leyte" in 1862 and prophesied that the island of Leyte would sink;[71] Clara Tarrosa, an eighty-year-old babaylan in Tigbauan, Iloilo in the late 1880s who proclaimed herself the Virgin Mary and isolated herself and her followers from Spanish rule;[63] Francisco Gonzalez (alias "Francisco Sales" or "Fruto Sales") of Jaro, Leyte who claimed in 1888 that he was a king sent to save people from another great flood by leading them to a city that would rise from the waves; and many more. These movements were usually suppressed by the Spanish by imprisoning their leaders or exiling them.[71]

The dios-dios movement was initially purely religious, only reacting defensively to Spanish persecution. However, by the 1880s, some dios-dios groups became more violently anti-colonial. The first such group was the one led by Ponciano Elofre, a cabeza de barangay of a sitio of Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental. He took the name "Dios Buhawi" ("Whirlwind God") and proclaimed himself the savior of the people. He declared that they would stop paying taxes to the Spanish government. He formed a community of around two thousand followers (whom the Spanish authorities called the babaylanes) and would regularly attack Spanish-controlled towns. Emulating the ancient asog shamans, he dressed in women's clothing and assumed feminine mannerisms even though he was married to a woman. He claimed supernatural powers much like the ancient dalagangan. He was killed while attacking the town of Siaton in 1887. His wife and relatives attempted to continue the movement, but they were eventually captured and exiled by Spanish authorities. The remnants of the group either descended to banditry or joined other later dios-dios movements.[6][40][71]

Another dios-dios uprising was led by a shaman named Gregorio Lampinio (better known as "Gregorio Dios", and also known as "Hilario Pablo" or "Papa") in Antique from 1888. The uprising was formed near Mount Balabago, a sacred pilgrimage site for shamans. Lampinio led a force of around 400 people. They collected contribuciones babaylanes (a revolutionary tax), disseminated anti-colonial ideas, and launched attacks on towns in Antique and Iloilo. The group was eventually suppressed by the Guardia Civil by 1890.[71]

The last significant dios-dios rebellion in the 19th century was led by Dionisio Magbuelas, better known as Papa Isio ("Pope Isio"). He was a former member of the Dios Buhawi group. He organized his own babaylanes group from remnants of Elofre's followers and led an uprising in Negros Occidental in 1896 against Spanish rule. After the Philippines was ceded to the United States after the Spanish–American War, he was initially made "military chief" of La Castellana, Negros Occidental under the American government. However, he picked up armed resistance again in 1899 in the Philippine–American War. He surrendered in August 6, 1907 to American authorities and was sentenced to death. This was later commuted to life imprisonment and he died in the Manila Bilibid Prison in 1911.[76][77][78]

20th century

Concurrent with Papa Isio's rebellion in Negros Occidental against American rule, the dios-dios movement in eastern Visayas turned their attention to the new American colonial government. Calling themselves the Pulajanes ("those who wear red"), they were led by Faustino Ablen ("Papa Faustino") in Leyte; and Pablo Bulan ("Papa Pablo"), Antonio Anugar, and Pedro de la Cruz in Samar. Like their predecessors, they claimed supernatural powers and used fetishistic amulets, holy oils, and magic spells in battle. They attacked both American troops and local Filipinos cooperating with the American colonial government. The last Pulajanes leader was killed in 1911.[71][76]

See also


Notes

  1. ↑ These sacrifices vary depending on the type of spirit being interacted with (Buenconsejo, 2002)
  2. ↑ Asog is from Proto-Western-Malayo-Polynesian *asug, "shaman in ritual transvestite attire"; and Proto-Central Philippine *ásug, "sterile" or "asexual". Asog is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region. Other Visayan terms include bantot, bayog, binabaye, and babayenon. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as bayok (bayoc), bayog, bayogin (bayoguin or bayoquin), binabae, or bido. Notably among the Sambal, the highest-ranking shaman was a bayok. They are also known as labia among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Garcia, 2008; Kroeber, 1918). In modern Filipino languages, the most commonly used terms are bakla, bayot, or agi. See also Bakla
  3. ↑ Early colonial accounts point out that same-sex sexual relations were common for precolonial Filipinos of both sexes, not only the asog. In general, there was a great degree of sexual freedom in precolonial Filipino societies. Virginity was not valued, adultery was not perceived negatively, and there was wide use of genital piercings (tugbuk and sakra). (Brewer, 1999)
  4. ↑ Spirits in human form are believed to be distinguishable from humans because they do not have a philtrum. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
  5. ↑ Names of spirits are generally not spoken aloud outside of a shamanic ritual, as it is believed that it may provoke them. They are instead referred to in euphemistic terms like "dili ingon nato" or "hindi kagaya natin", literally meaning "those unlike us". (Buenconsejo, 2002; Tan, 2008)
  6. ↑ With strong parallels to human-like beings like elves and aos sí, as well as diminutive human-like beings like brownies and pixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
  7. ↑ Other names for the astral soul include kaluha, dungan (Visayan); kalag (Bicol); linnawa (Igorot), kaduwa (Isneg), ab-abiik (Kankanaey), karurua (Ilocano), ikaruruwa (Ibanag), karaduwa (Mangyan), kiyaraluwa (Tagbanwa), makatu (Bukidnon), and kadengan-dengan or gimokud (Manobo). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010)
  8. ↑ Also aplos (Bontoc); aptus (Ivatan); unar (Kalinga); kemkem (Pangasinan); ilot or ilut (Ilocano, Itawis, Zambal, & Pampango); ablon (northern Ilocano); ilu (Ibanag); ilat (Isneg); elot (Ilonggo); agod or agud (Maranao & Maguindanao); and hagud (Lumad)
  9. ↑ Similar beliefs exist throughout Southeast Asia. These include the Cambodian nak, Burmese naga, and Thai naag. Though the cycles do not correspond exactly, all of them were used as a sort of geomantic calendar.
  10. ↑ There are various names for sorcerers in Philippine ethnic groups, different from the term for "shaman". Most of these names have negative connotations, and thus is also translated to "witch" or "hag" in English sources. They include Bikol: parakaraw; Ilocano: managtanem, managinulod, mannamay; Ivatan: mamkaw, manulib; Kapampangan: mangkukusim (or mangkukusino); Pangasinan: manananem, mangngibawanen; Tagalog: mangkukulam (or mancocolam), mangagaway, may-galing, hukluban (or hukloban); Visayan: dalagangan, dunganon, dalongdongan, busalian, mamamarang (or mamalarang, barangan), usikan (or osikan), paktolan, sigbinan, manughiwit, mamumuyag, mang-aawog (or mang-aawug, mang-aaug).
  11. ↑ People with strong dungan are known as dunganon. They are described as being charismatic, very intelligent, confident, and strong-willed. They have a tendency to dominate others, and can do so without consciously being aware of it. They are natural leaders and are often respected ranking members of the community and thus tend to become sorcerers, shamans, chieftains, master craftsmen, or renowned warrior-heroes (known variously as bayani, bagani, or banwar in various Filipino ethnic groups). The concept of dungan is comparable to the term mana in Pacific Islander culture as well as similar "men of prowess" concepts in other Austronesian cultures. (Aguilar, 1998)
  12. ↑ The term barang refers to a type of beetle in Visayan. Lágà (sometimes written as la-ga or la-aga) means to brew or to boil [in a pot]. (McClenon, 1985)
  13. ↑ Examples include the festivals of the Black Nazarene and the Santo Niño de Cebú (McCoy, 1982)
  14. ↑ Derived from Spanish herbolario ("herbalist"). These generalist healers were also known by the Spanish as mediquillos, saludadores, or curanderos (Marco, 2001)

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Fay-Cooper Cole & Albert Gale (1922). "The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe". Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series 14 (2): 235–493. https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Limos, Mario Alvaro (18 March 2019). "The Fall of the Babaylan". Esquire. https://www.esquiremag.ph/long-reads/features/the-fall-of-the-babaylan-a2017-20190318. Retrieved 12 July 2019. 
  3. ↑ William Henry Scott (1992). Looking For The Prehispanic Filipino and Other Essays in Philippine History. New Day Publishers. pp. 124–127. ISBN 978-9711005245. https://archive.org/stream/LookingForThePrehispanicFilipino/Looking%20for%20the%20Prehispanic%20Filipino#page/n67/mode/2up/search/babaylan. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Scott, W.H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 
  5. ↑ Perry Gil S. Mallari (16 November 2013). "The complementary roles of the Mandirigma and the Babaylan". The Manila Times. http://www.manilatimes.net/the-complementary-roles-of-the-mandirigma-and-the-babaylan/53493/. Retrieved 5 July 2018. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Alfred McCoy (1982). "Baylan : Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 10 (3): 141–194. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/310606975. 
  7. ↑ Emma Helen Blair, ed (1904). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803. Volume 38 (1674–1683). The Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 114, 218. https://archive.org/stream/philippineisland38blai#page/n5/mode/2up/search/babaylan. 
  8. ↑ United States Philippine Commission, 1900-1916 (1905). Census of the Philippine Islands, Taken Under the Director of the Philippine Commission in the Year 1903. Volume I: Geography, History, and Population. United States Bureau of the Census. p. 328. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=POAXAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Agnes M. Brazal (1996). "Inculturation: An Interpretative Model". in Jozef Lamberts. Liturgy and Inculturation: Introduction. Studies in Liturgy. 77. Peeters. ISBN 9789068318371. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=Chp1Jlqv1GQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Robert Blust & Stephen Trussel. "Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: *ba". http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_b.htm#ba. Retrieved 5 July 2018. 
  11. ↑ Otto Dempwolff (1934–1938). "Vergleichende Lautlehre des austronesischen Wortschatzes". Zeitschrift für Eingeborenen-Sprachen (Special Publications nos. 15, 17, 19). 
  12. ↑ Jordan Clark. "Naming the PHILIPPINE SHAMAN: Which Term Should You Use?". The Aswang Project. https://www.aswangproject.com/naming-the-philippine-shaman-which-term-to-use/. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Sylvia L. Mayuga (15 November 2012). "Walking between heaven and earth: The babaylan today". GMA News Online. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/artandculture/282454/walking-between-heaven-and-earth-the-babaylan-today/story/. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  14. ↑ Frank Charles Laubach (1925). The People of the Philippines, Their Religious Progress and Preparation for Spiritual Leadership in the Far East. George H. Doran Company. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AGA4322.0001.001/7?rgn=main;view=image. 
  15. ↑ Tingting Cojuangco (23 March 2008). "Women, North and South". PhilStar. https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/sunday-life/2008/03/23/51488/women-north-and-south. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Agnes N. Miclat-Cacayan (2005). Babaylan: She Dances in Wholeness. The Babaylan Symposium. St. Scholastica's College. http://www.babaylan.com/events/babaylan_symp_keynote_ANMC.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Godfrey Lambrecht (1960). "Anitu Rites Among the Gaddang". Philippine Studies 8 (3): 584–602. 
  18. ↑ Artchil C. Daug & Ashera Dyan T. Neri (2013). "The Tribal Philosophical Thoughts of the Higaunon of Iligan City, Philippines". Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 4 (9): 74–81. doi:10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n9p74. http://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/viewFile/1047/1077. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Virgil J. Mayor Apostol. "The Healing Arts of the Philippines". Jade Dragon Online. http://www.jadedragon.com/tao_heal/healingarts1.html. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Francisco R. Demetrio (1973). "Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels". Asian Studies 11 (2): 128–154. http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-11-02-1973/demetrio-philippine%20shamanism%20southeast%20asian%20parallels%20.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Philippine Ethnography: Ivatan. CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art. National Library of the Philippines. http://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph:81/CC01/NLP00VM052mcd/v1/v25.pdf. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Martin Stummer (2017). The Man In The Fairy Tale Isle (Colored Version): A true story narrated by Laura Montez. BoD - Books on Demand. p. 404. ISBN 9783744864862. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=7Hg3DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  23. ↑ Mark S. Williams (1997). "Causality, Power, and Cultural Traits of the Maguindanao". Philippine Sociological Review 45 (1): 34–63. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Ghislaine Loyre (1998). "Foreign Influences on Muslim Rituals". Philippine Studies 46 (4): 429–451. http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/2591/public/2591-2589-1-PB.pdf. 
  25. ↑ Buenconsejo, Jose S. (2013). Songs and Gifts at the Frontier. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 9781136719738. 
  26. ↑ Cauayan, Editha (24 May 2016). "IP leaders hold tribal ritual to save Mt Apo". https://www.rappler.com/move-ph/134072-ip-leaders-ritual-save-apo. Retrieved 4 December 2019. 
  27. ↑ Ibañez-Nolasco, Liberty (2004). "The Traditional Maranaw Governance System: Descriptives, Issues and Imperatives for Philippine Public Administration". Philippine Journal of Public Administration 48 (1 & 2): 155–203. http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph:8081/bitstream/handle/0/1609/09_The%20Traditional%20Maranaw%20Governance%20System.pdf?sequence=1. 
  28. ↑ Saidatul Nornis Hj. Mahali (2015). "Mystical Chants in the Bajau Society: A Preliminary Observation on the Changes in the Mindset Towards the Planting Ritual". International Journal of the Malay World and Civilisation 3 (1): 35–43. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322592593. 
  29. ↑ Philippine Ethnography: Badjao. National Library of the Philippines. http://nlpdl.nlp.gov.ph:81/CC01/NLP00VM052mcd/v1/v4.pdf. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Jack David Eller (2015). Introducing Anthropology of Religion. Routledge. pp. 68, 69. ISBN 9781317579144. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=KjZWBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  31. ↑ Jean-Paul G. Potet (2013). Arabic and Persian Loanwords in Tagalog. Lulu Press, Inc.. p. 322. ISBN 9781291457261. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=1i-bBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  32. ↑ Maria Jezia P. Talavera (2013). The T'boli: Songs, Stories and Society. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304347631. 
  33. ↑ Daniel De Guzman (2016-12-04). "6 Guidelines for Becoming a Filipino Shaman". The Aswang Project. https://www.aswangproject.com/filipino-shaman/. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  34. ↑ Robert P. Turner; David Lukoff; Ruth Tiffany Barnhouse; Francis G. Lu (1995). "Religious or spiritual problem. A culturally sensitive diagnostic category in the DSM-IV". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 183 (7): 435–444. doi:10.1097/00005053-199507000-00003. PMID 7623015. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 J. Landa Jocano (1958). "The Sulod: A Mountain People in Central Panay". Philippine Studies 6 (4): 401–436. http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/7395/public/7395-7583-1-PB.pdf. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Manolete Mora (2005). "Mind, Body, Spirit, and Soul: A Filipino Epistemology of Adeptness in Musical Performance". Asian Music 36 (2): 81–95. doi:10.1353/amu.2005.0022. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 37.7 37.8 37.9 José S. Buenconsejo (2002). Jennifer C. Post. ed. Songs and Gifts at the Frontier: Person and Exchange in the Agusan Manobo Possession Ritual, Philippines. Current Research in Ethnomusicology: Outstanding Dissertations Volume 4. Routledge. ISBN 9780415941242. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=zYqBWhOz5QMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  38. ↑ Rhea Claire E. Madarang (29 January 2013). "In the presence of a Babaylan". Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/20583-in-the-presence-of-a-babaylan. Retrieved 17 July 2018. 
  39. ↑ Ime Morales (22 January 2013). "Brief encounter with a Manobo babaylan". GMA News Online. http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/content/291441/brief-encounter-with-a-manobo-babaylan/story/. Retrieved 17 July 2018. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 Filomeno V. Aguilar (1998). Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 27–46. ISBN 9780824820824. https://archive.org/details/clashofspiritshi00agui. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 Carolyn Brewer (1999). "Baylan, Asog, Transvestism, and Sodomy: Gender, Sexuality and the Sacred in Early Colonial Philippines". Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context (2): 1. http://intersections.anu.edu.au/issue2/carolyn2.html#t50. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 J. Neil C. Garcia (2008). "Precolonial Gender-Crossing and the Babaylan Chronicles". Philippine Gay Culture: Binabae to Bakla, Silahis to MSM. The University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 9789715425773. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=93lag7tXriIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  43. ↑ Bliss Cua Lim (2015). "Queer Aswang Transmedia: Folklore as Camp". Kritika Kultura 24: 178–225. https://escholarship.org/content/qt3mj1k076/qt3mj1k076.pdf. 
  44. ↑ Robert Blust & Stephen Trussel. "Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: *a". http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_a1.htm#316. Retrieved 7 July 2018. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Luis H. Francia (2013). A History of the Philippines: From Indios Bravos to Filipinos. The Overlook Press. ISBN 9781468315455. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=NwQoDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 A. L. Kroeber (1918). "The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature". Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History XXI (Part II): 35–37. http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/handle/2246/286/A019a02.pdf;jsessionid=EB1447C19043A20F8A2BCE9726E4A3D1?sequence=1. 
  47. ↑ Castano, José. 1895. “Breve Noticia Acerca del Origen, Religión, Creencias y Supersticiones de los Antiguos Indios del Bícol.” Madrid: Colegio de Misioneros de Almagro.
  48. ↑ Filomeno V. Aguilar Jr. (2015). "The passing of rice spirits: cosmology, technology, and gender relations in the colonial Philippines". in Ooi Keat Gin & Hoang Anh Tuan. Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1350-1800. Routledge. pp. 250, 251. ISBN 9781317559191. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=NjqvCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  49. ↑ Dario Novellino (2003). "Contrasting Landscapes, Conflicting Ontologies: Assessing Environmental Conservation on Palawan Island (The Philippines)". in David G. Anderson & Eeva Berglund. Ethnographies of Conservation: Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege. Berghahn Books. pp. 171–188. ISBN 9780857456748. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=R1WwBWFEljQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 50.7 Zeus A. Salazar (2007). "Faith Healing in the Philippines: An Historical Perspective". Asian Studies 43 (2): 1–15. http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-43-02-2007/Faith%20Healing%20in%20the%20Philippines%20Zeus%20Salazar.pdf. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Samuel Gaabucayan (1971). "The Medicine Men of Agusan in Mindanao, Philippines". Asian Folklore Studies 30 (1): 39–54. doi:10.2307/1177763. https://semanticscholar.org/paper/304eaa6d88efca5c28a6d74637c51d07be80f263. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Jose Vidamor B. Yu (2000). Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality. Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations. Volume 3. Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana. pp. 148, 149. ISBN 9788876528484. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  53. ↑ Robert Blust & Stephen Trussel. "Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: *du". http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-s_d.htm#30339. Retrieved 7 July 2018. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 Ver F. Pacete (16 March 2017). "Pacete: Exploring the spirit world in us". SunStar Philippines. https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/131606. Retrieved 18 October 2018. 
  55. ↑ Leonardo N. Mercado (1991). "Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought". Philippine Studies 39 (3): 287–302. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 ZachiaRaiza Joy S. Berdon; Edheliza L. Ragosta; Reynaldo B. Inocian; Creezz A. Manalag; Elena B. Lozano (2016). "Unveiling Cebuano Traditional Healing Practices". Asia-Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary Research 4 (1): 51–59. http://www.apjmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/APJMR-2016.4.1.07.pdf. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Labastida, Sean Clark Luinor Antallan; Alapay, Johnpolven; Billones, Jenny; Gonzales, Jackquilyn; Macuja, Yra; Manlapig, Ena Eloisa; Montevirgen, Maurice Joy; Pineda, Karla Joyce et al. (29 April 2016). Tradisyunal nga Pamulong: A Rationale on the Persistence of Faith Healing Practices in Miagao, Iloilo. University of the Philippines Visayas. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303899461. 
  58. ↑ Frederick Starr (1930). Some Filipino Beliefs. W. Glaisher, Ltd.. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 James McClenon (1985). "Island of Sorcerers". Fate 38 (9): 37–41. http://www.mysiquijor.com/IslandoftheSorcerers.htm. 
  60. ↑ Benjamin Haas (30 October 2011). "Witches in Philippines' Siquijor province are old hat". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/30/world/la-fg-philippines-witches-20111031. Retrieved 14 July 2018. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Nathalie M. Tomada (3 October 2010). "Mystical Siquijor". PhilStar Global. https://www.philstar.com/cebu-lifestyle/2010/10/03/617239/mystical-siquijor. Retrieved 15 July 2018. 
  62. ↑ Anita B. Feleo (2007). Iloilo: A Rich and Noble Land. Lopez Group Foundation. p. 65. ISBN 9789719390404. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Mike Davis (2002). Late Victorian Holocausts: El Nino Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso Books. pp. 96–97. ISBN 9781859843826. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=RQsHCBwizFcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  64. ↑ Coronel, Maria Delia; Cali, Hadji Lawa (1986). Darangen: In Original Maranao Verse, with English Translation. Volume 1. Marawi: Folklore Division, University Research Center, Mindanao State University. ISBN 9789711110338. http://filameducation.com/wp-content/uploads/Darangen.pdf. 
  65. ↑ Miura, Taro (1993). "Darangen: In Original Maranao Verses, with English Translation, Vo. 5". Asian Folklore Studies 52 (2): 319–322. https://asianethnology.org/downloads/ae/pdf/a756.pdf. 
  66. ↑ Saber, Mamitua (1961). "Darangen: The Epic of the Maranaws". Philippine Sociological Review 9 (1/2): 42–46. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 67.4 Michael L. Tan (2008). Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam. University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 9789715425704. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=EktzHrfup1UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  68. ↑ Daniel De Guzman (2017-09-27). "The Many Faces of Filipino Folk Healers". The Aswang Project. https://www.aswangproject.com/many-faces-filipino-folk-healers/. Retrieved 14 July 2018. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Michael G. Peletz (2009). Gender Pluralism: Southeast Asia Since Early Modern Times. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 9781135954895. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=HGOTAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  70. ↑ Perry Gil S. Mallari (8 March 2014). "The Filipina as ritualist and warrior". The Manila Times. http://www.manilatimes.net/the-filipina-as-ritualist-and-warrior/81079/. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 71.5 71.6 71.7 71.8 Sophia Marco (2001). "Dios-Dios in the Visayas". Philippine Studies 49 (1): 42–77. http://www.philippinestudies.net/files/journals/1/articles/8474/public/8474-8828-1-PB.pdf. 
  72. ↑ Yusuf Morales (26 July 2017). "PEACETALK: Understanding the typology of Filipino Muslim religious leaders". MindaNews. http://www.mindanews.com/mindaviews/2017/07/peacetalk-understanding-the-typology-of-filipino-muslim-religious-leaders/. Retrieved 6 July 2018. 
  73. ↑ J. Neil C. Garcia (23 June 2014). "Philippine Gay Culture: Conclusion". Panitikan: Philippine Literature Portal. https://panitikan.ph/2014/06/23/philippine-gay-culture-conclusion/. Retrieved 7 July 2018. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 Damon L. Woods (2006). The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781851096756. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Cecilio D. Duka (2008). Struggle for Freedom. Rex Bookstore, Inc.. pp. 99–100. ISBN 9789712350450. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Renato Constantino & Letizia R. Constantino (1975). A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War. Monthly Review Press. ISBN 9780853453949. https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
  77. ↑ Modesto P. Sa-onoy (1992). Negros Occidental History. Today Printers and Publishers. pp. 110–118. 
  78. ↑ "Papa Isio marker unveiled". The Visayan Daily Star. 10 November 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20091113113335/http://www.visayandailystar.com/2009/November/10/people.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2018. 

External links




Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Religion:Babaylan&oldid=3707503"