Social:Mongolian script

Short description: Writing system used for the Mongolian language

This page is about the original Mongolian writing system. For later developments, see Mongolian writing systems. For the language, see Mongolian language.

Mongolian script ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ
Poem composed and brush-written by Injinash, 19th century
Type	Alphabet
Languages	Mongolian language
Creator	Tata-tonga
Time period	c. 1204–1941 (common use) 1941–present (common use in Inner Mongolia; chiefly ceremonial use in Mongolia)
Parent systems	Egyptian hieroglyphs Proto-Sinaitic alphabet Phoenician alphabet Aramaic alphabet Syriac alphabet Sogdian alphabet Old Uyghur alphabet Mongolian script
Child systems	Galik alphabet Manchu alphabet Dagur alphabet Xibe alphabet Clear Script (Oirat alphabet) Vagindra script (Buryat alphabet) Evenki alphabet
Direction	Top-to-bottom
ISO 15924	Mong, 145
Unicode alias	Mongolian
Unicode range	U+1800–U+18AF Mongolian U+11660–U+1167F Mong. Supplement

The traditional Mongolian script,}} also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig,; in Mongolian script: ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ qudum mongɣol bičig; Khalkha: Khalkha: худам монгол бичиг, khudam mongol bichig mn; Buryat: Худам Монгол бэшэг, Hudam Mongol bèšèg}} was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right Template:Script directionality. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, it is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.

Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.

History

The so-called Stone of Genghis Khan or Stele of Yisüngge, with the earliest known inscription in the Mongolian script.

The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language. Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.

From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols, monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc. The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants ɣ/g, b/w had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).

Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with /dʒ/ and /tʃ/ respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial /j/. Zain was dropped as it was redundant for /s/. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.

Words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.

The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence. Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.

• 
  Reed pens
• 
  Ink brushes
• 
  Writing implements of the Bogd Khan

Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.

The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.

Names

The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script. From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script, in contrast to the New Script, referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script, in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script, and also as 'vertical script'.

Overview

The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (o/u, ö/ü, final a/e) and consonants (syllable-initial t/d and k/g, sometimes ǰ/y) that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script. The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.

Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.

The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise.

Vowel harmony

Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral:

• The back, male, masculine, hard, or yang vowels a, o, and u.
• The front, female, feminine, soft, or yin vowels e, ö, and ü.
• The neutral vowel i, able to appear in all words.

Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel i, but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.

Separated final vowels

A separated final form of vowels a or e (Template:Mvsᠠ^⟨?⟩ ‑a/‑e) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen. File:Mongolia police patch 03.tif

The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷTemplate:Mvsᠠ^⟨?⟩ qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠ qara 'to look').

It has the same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post-Classical use.

Separated suffixes

1925 logo of Buryat–Mongolian newspaper:
ᠪᠤᠷᠢᠶᠠᠳ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠨ ᠦᠨᠡᠨ᠃
Buriyad Mongɣol‑un ünen 'Buryat-Mongol truth' with the suffix  ᠤᠨ^⟨?⟩ ‑un.

All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap. A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.

Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a/e, i, or u/ü, as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ^⟨?⟩ ɣaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ^⟨?⟩ edür‑e 'on the day', or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ^⟨?⟩ ulus‑i 'the state' etc. Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in the two-letter suffix  ᠤᠨ^⟨?⟩ ‑un/‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.

Consonant clusters

Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.

Compound names

In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ Qas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ Kökeqota – the city of Hohhot; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨ᠥ‍→᠊ᠥTemplate:Fvs‍⟩ ö in ᠮᠤᠤ‍‍ᠥTemplate:Fvs‍‍ᠬᠢᠨ Muu'ökin 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial t and d, in contrast, are not affected in this way.

Isolate citation forms

Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o, u, ö, and ü may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in ⟨ᠪᠣ⟩ bo/bu or ⟨ᠮᠣTemplate:Fvs⟩ mo/mu, and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ᠪᠥTemplate:Fvs⟩ bö/bü or ⟨ᠮᠥTemplate:Fvs⟩ mö/mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).

Letters

Sort orders

Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model.

Example orders

South (inner) Mongolian order	a	e	i	o	u	ö	ü	n	b	p	q	k	ɣ	g	m	l	s	š	t	d	č	ǰ	y	r	v	(f)	(ž)	(c)	(k)	(h)
1986 primer, Mongolian Republic										q	k	ɣ	g	ǰ	y	t	d	m	č	r	s	š	l	v	(p)		(z)
Dictionaries after 1924, Mongolian Republic																									(f)	(p)	(ž)

Native Mongolian

The script represented as a syllabary, 19th century

Native Mongolian

Letters ​	Contextual forms			Transliteration​		International Phonetic Alphabet
	Initial	Medial	Final	Latin	Mong. Cyrillic​	Khalkha​	Chakhar​
ᠠ	ᠠ‍	‍ᠠ‍	‍ᠠ ‍ᠠTemplate:Fvs	a	а	/a/	/ɑ/
ᠡ	ᠡ‍	‍ᠡ‍	‍ᠡ ‍ᠡTemplate:Fvs	e	э	/ə/
ᠢ	ᠢ‍	‍ᠢ‍	‍ᠢ	i	и	/i/	/i/ or /ɪ/
ᠣ	ᠣ‍	‍ᠣ‍	‍ᠣ	o	о	/ɔ/
ᠤ	ᠤ‍	‍ᠤ‍	‍ᠤ	u	у	/ʊ/
ᠥ	ᠥ‍	‍ᠥTemplate:Fvs‍ ‍ᠥ‍	‍ᠥ	ö	ө	/ɵ/	/o/
ᠦ	ᠦ‍	‍ᠦTemplate:Fvs‍ ‍ᠦ‍	‍ᠦ	ü	ү	/u/
ᠨ	ᠨ‍	‍ᠨ‍ ‍ᠨTemplate:Fvs‍	‍ᠨ ‍ᠨTemplate:Mvs	n	н	/n/
ᠩ	—	‍ᠩ‍	‍ᠩ	ng	нг	/ŋ/
ᠪ	ᠪ‍	‍ᠪ‍	‍ᠪ	b	б	/p/ and /w/	/b/
ᠫ	ᠫ‍	‍ᠫ‍	—	p	п	/pʰ/	/p/
ᠬ	ᠬ	‍ᠬ‍	‍ᠬ	q k	х	/x/
ᠭ	ᠭ	‍ᠭ‍ ‍ᠭTemplate:Fvs‍	‍ᠭ ‍ᠭTemplate:Mvs File:3mg g final.png	ɣ g	г	/ɢ/	/ɣ/
ᠮ	ᠮ‍	‍ᠮ‍	‍ᠮ	m	м	/m/
ᠯ	ᠯ‍	‍ᠯ‍	‍ᠯ	l	л	/ɮ/	/l/
ᠰ	ᠰ‍	‍ᠰ‍	‍ᠰ	s	с	/s/ or /ʃ/ before i
ᠱ	ᠱ‍	‍ᠱ‍	‍ᠱ	š	ш	/ʃ/
ᠲ	ᠲ‍	‍ᠲ‍	—	t	т	/t/
ᠳ	ᠳ‍	‍ᠳ‍ ‍ᠳTemplate:Fvs‍	‍ᠳ	d	д	/t/ and /tʰ/	/d/
ᠴ	ᠴ‍	‍ᠴ‍	—	č	ч	/t͡ʃʰ/ and /t͡sʰ/	/t͡ʃ/
ᠵ	ᠵ‍	‍ᠵ‍	—	ǰ	ж	/d͡ʒ/ and d͡z	/d͡ʒ/
ᠶ	ᠶ‍	‍ᠶ‍	‍ᠶ	y	й	/j/
ᠷ	ᠷ‍	‍ᠷ‍	‍ᠷ	r	р	/r/

Galik characters

In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet (Али-гали Ali-gali), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).

In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions, a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions, to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.

From left to right: Phagspa, Lantsa, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese and Cyrillic, from 1903 or earlier

Galik characters

Letters​​	Contextual forms			Transliteration​
	Initial	Medial	Final	Latin	Mong. Cyrillic​	Sanskrit	Tibetan​
ᠧ	ᠧ‍	‍ᠧ‍	‍ᠧ	ē/é	е	ए	ཨེ	/e/
ᠸ	ᠸ‍	‍ᠸ‍	‍ᠸ	w/v	в	व	ཝ	/w/
ᠹ	ᠹ‍	‍ᠹ‍	‍ᠹ	f	ф	फ	ཕ	/f/
ᠺ	ᠺ‍	‍ᠺ‍	‍ᠺ	g/k	к	ग	ག	/k/
ᠻ	ᠻ‍	‍ᠻ‍	‍ᠻ	k/kh	к	ख	ཁ	/kʰ/
ᠼ	ᠼ‍	‍ᠼ‍	‍ᠼ	c	ц	छ	ཚ	/t͡s/
ᠽ	ᠽ‍	‍ᠽ‍	‍ᠽ	z	з	च	ཙ ཛ	/d͡z/
ᠾ	ᠾ‍	‍ᠾ‍	‍ᠾ	h	х	ह	ཧ	/h/
ᠿ	ᠿ‍	—	—	ž	ж		ཞ	/ʐ/, /ɻ/
ᡀ	ᡀ‍	‍ᡀ‍	—	lh	лх		ལྷ	/ɬ/
ᡁ	ᡁ‍	—	—	zh	з			/d͡ʐ/
ᡂ	ᡂ‍	—	—	ch	ч		ཋ	/t͡ʂ/

Punctuation and numerals

Punctuation

Example of word-breaking the name Oyirad 'Oirat', 1604 manuscript

Abbreviation exemplified with the initial syllable of the Mongolian tögrög (ᠲᠥ‍᠂)

When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends. Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect. Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉.

Punctuation

Form(s)	Name	Function(s)
᠀	Birga	Marks start of a book, chapter, passage, or first line
᠀Template:Fvs
᠀Template:Fvs
᠀Template:Fvs
[...]
᠂	'Dot'	Comma
᠃	'Double-dot'	Period / full stop
᠅	'Four-fold dot'	Marks end of a passage, paragraph, or chapter
᠁	'Dotted line'	Ellipsis
᠄	'Parallel dots' 'Pair of dots' |Colon
᠆	'Spine, backbone'	Mongolian soft hyphen (wikt:᠆)
᠊		Mongolian non-breaking hyphen, or stem extender (wikt:᠊)

Numerals

Main article: Mongolian numerals

	Text	Image
15 on 'year of 15' on a 1925 tögrög coin, with the number written across the baseline.	᠑᠕ ᠣᠨ
89 (top) written vertically on a hillside, with the number written along the baseline.	᠘ ᠙
Printed numeral 3, written along the baseline and rotated 90 degrees clockwise.	᠁‍ᠤᠢ ᠓ ᠬᠡ‍᠁

0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
᠐	᠑	᠒	᠓	᠔	᠕	᠖	᠗	᠘	᠙

Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom. For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.

Components and writing styles

Components

Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes) commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.

Form	Name(s)	Use
᠊ᠡ‍	'Tooth'	A main part of letters / (from Old Uyghur aleph), (nun, also part of the digraph ), / (gimel-heth), (mem), (hooked resh), initial / (taw), etc. Historically also part of / (kaph), as well as (resh).
ᠡ‍	'Crown'	An exaggerated initial (swash) tooth. Used for the leading aleph of initial vowels (, , , , , , , ), and with some initial consonants (, , , = nun, mem, hooked resh, ha etc.). Historically unused.
᠊᠊	'Spine, backbone'	The vertical line running through words.
‍᠊ᠠ	'Tail'	The swash final of , , , etc.
‍᠊ᠰTemplate:Fvs	'Short tail'	The swash final of , , and (samekh-shin or zayin).
Template:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ ⟨⟩	Crook	The separated final .
	Crook, 'Sprinkling, dusting'	The connected lower part of final ; the lower part of final (kaph).
‍ᡳTemplate:Fvs	'Hook'	The final part of final (after bow-shaped , ) and some galik letters.
ᠵ‍	'Shin, stick'	A main part of , , and , and final part of initial (yodh). Also the upper part of final (kaph).
	'Straight shin'
	'Long tooth'
ᠶ‍	'Shin with upturn'	Initial and medial (yodh).
ᠸ‍	Shin with downturn	The letters and (bet).
ᠷ‍	Horned shin	The letter (resh). Historically also the upper part of final and separated .
ᠳTemplate:Fvs‍	'Looped shin'	A medial (lamedh). Historically with its enclosed (counter) endpoint varying in shape: as open/closed, hook-shaped, pointy/round etc.
ᡁ‍	'Hollow shin'	The letters and (from the Tibetan script).
‍ᠢ	'Bow'	Final , , and ; , / (pe), , etc.
‍᠊ᠣ‍	'Belly, stomach,' loop, contour	The counter of (waw), , , initial , etc.
ᠲ‍	'Hind-gut'	An initial (taw).
ᠬ	[...]	An initial (gimel-heth).
‍᠊ᠮ‍	'Braid, pigtail' and 'Horn'	The letters (mem) and (hooked resh).
‍᠊ᠯ‍
‍᠊ᠰ‍	'Corner of the mouth'	The letters (samekh-shin).
‍ᠴ‍	[...]	The letter (angular tsade).
	'Fork'
‍ᠵ‍	[...]	The letter (smooth tsade).
	'Tusk, fang'
‍᠊ᠹ‍	Flaglet, tuft	The left-side diacritic of , , etc. These names are only used for such components created for words of foreign origin.
‍ᠽ‍

Writing styles

As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward):

Cursive sample in (pre-classical) Middle Mongol:

Rounded letterforms

• Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten 'ten').

Block‑printed		1604 Pen-written form	Modern brush‑​written​ form	&
1312 Uyghur Mong. form	semi-modern forms
20px	42px	File:Pen-written arban.svg	24px	'ten'
	22px

Tail

• Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of , , , , , , , , , and ) may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting.
• The long final tails of , , , and in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century Uyghur Mongolian style of texts.

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	Modern brush‑​written​ forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
19px	40px	File:Pen-written -ača -eče.svg	20px	/​
	18px
19px	50px	File:Pen-written -un -ün.svg	24px	/​
	18px
21px	47px	File:Pen-written -ud -üd.svg	26px	/​
	21px
19px	42px	File:Pen-written ba.svg	20px	'and'

Yodh

• A hooked form of yodh was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial from . The handwritten form of final-shaped yodh (, , ), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms.

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	Modern brush‑​written​ forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
21px	17px	File:Pen-written -i.svg	11px
	14px
18px	17px	File:Pen-written -yi.svg	22px
22px	42px	File:Pen-written -yin.svg	27px
	20px
23px	41px	File:Pen-written sayin.svg	26px	/ 'good'
	19px
18px	47px	File:Pen-written yeke.svg	19px	'great'

Diacritics

• The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters , , and , can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both and could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of and can be offset downward from their respective letters (as in ᠭᠣᠣᠯ and ᠭᠦᠨ ᠢ^⟨?⟩ ).

Bow

• When a bow-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see ). A final has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	Modern brush‑​written​ forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
17px	16px	File:Pen-written -u -ü.svg	11px	/​
22px	20px	File:Pen-written bi.svg	12px	'I'
24px
97px	55px	File:Pen-written ab.svg	34px	(intensifying particle)

Gimel-heth and kaph

• As in , , and separated /, two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a kaph (/) or aleph (/) in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, was used in place of , and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix /.

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	Modern brush‑​written​ forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
24px	46px	File:Pen-written -a -e.svg	34px	/​
	45px
	54px
	21px
17px	44px	File:Pen-written -luγ-a.svg	37px
20px	18px	File:Pen-written kü.svg	[...]	(emphatic particle)
20px	44px	File:Pen-written köke.svg	30px	'blue'
				'soot'
20px	51px	File:Pen-written ǰüg.svg	30px	'direction'

Ligatures

• In pre-modern Mongolian, medial (‍ᠮᠯ‍) forms a ligature: .

The word 'monastic vow' in a Uyghur Mongolian style: exemplifying a dotted syllable-final , and a final ligature.

Short tail

• A pre-modern variant form for final appears in the shape of a short final ⟨‍ᠰTemplate:Fvs⟩, derived from Old Uyghur zayin (). It tended to be replaced by the mouth-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰTemplate:Fvs . A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final and .

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
16px	42px	File:Pen-written ese.svg	'not, no', (negation)
	42px
24px	19px	File:Pen-written ulus.svg	'nation'
	26px
51px	18px	File:Pen-written nom.svg	'book'
18px	18px	File:Pen-written čaγ.svg	'time'
43px	17px

Taw and lamedh

• Initial taw (/) can, akin to final mem (), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in 'book' and 'mirror'). The lamedh ( or ) may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in / or /). As in , a Uyghur style word-medial can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for . Taw was applied to both initial and from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme in this position.

Block‑printed		Pen-written forms	Modern brush‑​written​ forms	&
Uyghur Mong. forms	semi-modern forms
19px	19px	[...]	18px	'mirror'
44px	39px	File:Pen-written -taki -teki -daki -deki.svg	[...]	/
22px	16px	File:Pen-written -tur -tür.svg	[...]	/​
	50px	File:Pen-written -dur -dür.svg	21px	/​
22px	35px	File:Pen-written metü.svg	[...]	'as'

Tsade

• Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular tsade (‍ᠵ‍ and ᠴ) has come to represent and respectively. The tsade before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no had existed in Old Uyghur:

Block‑printed		&
Uyghur Mong. form	semi-modern form
18px	43px	'flower'

Block-printed semi-modern form	Pen-written form	&
	File:Pen-written qačar γaǰar.svg	/ 'cheek/place'

Resh

• As in and /, a resh (of , and sometimes of ) can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping.

Block‑printed		Pen-written form	Modern brush‑​written​ form	&
Uyghur Mong. form	semi-modern forms
20px	36px	File:Pen-written sara.svg	21px	'moon/month'
	45px

Example

Wikipedia slogan

Manuscript	Type	Unicode	Transliteration (first word)
File:Mclassical mimic.jpg	76x480px	ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃	ᠸᠢ‍ /​
			‍ᠺᠢ‍ /
			‍ᠫᠧ‍ /
			‍ᠳᠢ‍
			‍ᠶTemplate:Mvsᠠ⟨?⟩ or ‍ᠶᠠ
Transliteration: Cyrillic: Transcription: Translation: Wikipedia is the free encyclopedia.

Gallery

• 
  Decorative 'wrapped/folded' letters on a 2023 passport.
• 
  Mongolian calligraphy of the 13th century work Оюун Түлхүүр (Key of Intelligence)
• 
  Imperial seal of the Bogd Khan, ca 1911.
• 
  Mixed Manchu–Mongolian text on a Paiza.
• 
  Brush-written manuscript, 19th century
• 
  Book of Jeremiah, printed 1840 at Khodon in Siberia.

Unicode

The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.

• The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable. For example, a 2016 corpus study found that the homographic misspelling "mun̅g̅g1ul" was more common than "Mon̅g̅gol" 'mongolia' since o and u are visually identical but encoded separately.

• The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results. Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.
• The characters themselves are typed left to right, instead of the correct up to down.

Blocks

The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.

The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0:

Keyboard layout

The Windows Mongolian traditional script keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:

Unshifted layout

FVS3

1 ᠑

2 ᠒

3 ᠓

4 ᠔

5 ᠕

6 ᠖

7 ᠗

8 ᠘

9 ᠙

0 ᠐

NNBSP

=

Backspace

Tab

Q ᠴ

W ᠣ

E ᠡ

R ᠷ

T ᠲ

Y ᠶ

U ᠦ

I ᠢ

O ᠥ

P ᠫ

(...) 〔

(...) 〕

(...) ᠁

Caps

A ᠠ

S ᠰ

D ᠳ

F ᠹ

G ᠭ

H ᠬ

J ᠵ

K ᠺ

L ᠯ

; ︔

FVS1

Enter

Shift

\

Z ᠽ

X ᠱ

C ᠼ

V ᠤ

B ᠪ

N ᠨ

M ᠮ

, ᠂

. ᠃

.

Shift

Ctrl

Alt

Alt

Ctrl

Shifted layout

~

1 !

2 ⁈

3 ⁉

4 —

5 %

6 ZWNJ

7 ᠊

8 ZWJ

9 (

0 )

MVS

+

Backspace

Tab

W ᠸ

E ᠧ

R ᠿ

(...) 〈

(...) 〉

(...) |

Caps

H ᠾ

K ᠻ

L ᡀ

: ᠄

FVS2

Enter

Shift

Z ᡁ

C ᡂ

N ᠩ

, 《

. 》

?

Shift

Ctrl

Alt

Alt

Ctrl

See also

• Mongolian writing systems
  • Mongolian script
    • Mongolian script multigraphs
    • Galik alphabet
    • Todo alphabet
  • ʼPhags-pa script
    • Horizontal square script
  • Soyombo script
  • Mongolian Latin alphabet
    • SASM/GNC romanization § Mongolian
  • Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet
  • Mongolian transliteration of Chinese characters
    • Sino–Mongolian Transliterations (zh)
  • Mongolian Braille
• Mongolian Sign Language
• Mongolian name

External links

Keyboards Mongolian script layout online

• Lexilogos
• Typingbaba
• Branah.com

Summaries

• University of Vienna: Grammar of Written Mongolian by Nicholas POPPE Index
• CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script
• StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation
• The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts
• Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources
• Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet (contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)

Studies

• (fr) Rémusat, Abel Récherches sur les langues tartares, Paris, 1820

Grammars

• (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka), Saint-Petersburg, 1832
• (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka), Kazan, 1849
• (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache, St. Petersburg, 1831
• (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss), Paris, 1903
• (it) Puini, Carlo, Elementi della grammatica mongolica, Firenze, 1878

Dictionaries

• (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Franca̧is, Volumes 1–3, Kazan 1844-46-49
• Bolor Dictionary (sometimes uses galik characters for rendering purposes)
• Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia

Transliteration

• University of Virginia: Transliteration Schemes For Mongolian Vertical Script
• Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration
• Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University

Manuscripts

• Mongolian Manuscripts from Olon Süme – Yokohama Museum of EurAsian Cultures
• Digitised Mongolian manuscripts – The Royal Library, National Library of Denmark
• Mongolian texts – Digitales Turfan-Archiv, the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities
• Preservation of unique and historic newspapers printed in traditional Mongolian script between 1936–1945 – Endangered Archives Programme, British Library

Other

• Official Mongolian script version of the People's Daily Online
• Office of the President of Mongolia website in Mongolian script
• Tang, Didi (20 March 2020). "Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet". https://www.thetimes.com/world/russia-ukraine-war/article/mongolia-abandons-soviet-past-by-restoring-alphabet-rsvcgqmxd.