Social:Non-governmental organization

From HandWiki
Short description: Entity that is not part of the government
"NGO" redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation).

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an entity that is not part of the government. This can include non-profit and for-profit entities. An NGO may get a significant percentage or even all of its funding from government sources. An NGO typically is thought to be a nonprofit organization that operates partially independent of government control. Non-profit NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues but can also include clubs and associations offering services to members. Some non-profit NGOs, like the World Economic Forum, may also act as lobby groups for corporations. Unlike intergovernmental organizations, which directly interact with sovereign states and governments, NGOs are independent from them.

The term as it is used today was first introduced in Article 71 of the newly formed United Nations Charter in 1945.[1] While there is no fixed or formal definition for what NGOs are, they are generally defined as non-profit entities that are independent of government management or direction—although they may receive government funding.[1]

According to the UN Department of Global Communications, an NGO is "a not-for profit, voluntary citizen's group that is organized on a local, national or international level to address issues in support of the public good".[2] The term NGO is used inconsistently, and is sometimes used synonymously with civil society organization (CSO), which is any association founded by citizens.[3] In some countries, NGOs are known as non-profit organizations while political parties and trade unions are sometimes considered NGOs as well.[4]

NGOs are classified by (1) orientation- entailing the type of activities an NGO undertakes, such as activities involving human rights, consumer protection, environmentalism, health, or development; and (2) level of operation, which indicates the scale at which an organization works: local, regional, national, or international.[4]

The number of NGOs varies widely by country. India has one of the largest sectors, with over 3.7 million NGOs registered on the government's DARPAN portal as of 2024.[5] In contrast, the number of registered NGOs in Russia has seen a significant decline due to restrictive laws, with thousands being liquidated or delisted since the implementation of the "foreign agent" law.[6] The United States, by comparison, has approximately 1.5 million NGOs; an NGO for every 227 people.[7][8]

Types

NGOs further the social goals of their members (or founders): improving the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda. Their goals cover a wide range of issues. They may fund local NGOs, institutions and projects, and implement projects.[9]

NGOs can be in the following ways:[4]

  1. orientation, i.e. the type of activities an NGO undertakes, such as activities involving human rights, consumer protection, environmentalism, health, or development.
  2. level of operation, which indicates the scale at which an organization works: local, regional, national, or international.

Orientation

  • Charity — often a top-down effort, with little participation or input from beneficiaries. They include NGOs directed at meeting the needs of disadvantaged people and groups.
  • Service — includes NGOs that provide healthcare (including family planning) and education.
  • Participatory — self-help projects with local involvement in the form of money, tools, land, materials, or labor
  • Empowerment — aim to help poor people to understand the social, political, and economic factors affecting their lives, and to increase awareness of their power to control their lives. With maximum involvement by the beneficiaries, the NGOs are facilitators.[9]
  • Professional (trade) union (association) – a voluntary association or union of people with common interests including sports, culture, others, i.e. Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, FIFA

Level of operation

  • Community-based organizations (CBOs) — popular initiatives which can raise the consciousness of the urban poor, helping them understand their right to services, and providing such services.
  • City-wide organizations — include chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, and community organizations.
  • State NGOs — include state-level organizations, associations, and groups. Some state NGOs are guided by national and international NGOs.
  • National NGOs — an NGO that exists in only one country.[10] These include national organizations such as YMCAs and YWCAs, professional associations, and similar groups. Some have state or city branches, and assist local NGOs.
  • International NGOs (INGOs) — range from secular agencies, such as Save the Children, to religious groups. They may fund local NGOs, institutions and projects, and implement projects.[9]

Other terms/acronyms

  • French: organisation non gouvernementale
  • Italian: organizzazione non governativa
  • Portuguese: organização não governmental
  • Spanish: organización no gubernamental
  • Romanian: organizație neguvernamentală
  • BINGO: Business-friendly international NGO or Big international NGO
  • CSO: Civil society organization
  • ENGO: Environmental NGO — organizations that advocate for the environment, such as Greenpeace and the WWF.[11]
  • DONGO: Donor-organized NGO
  • GONGO: Government-organized non-governmental organization — often used derogatorily, these are government-backed NGOs that are set up to advocate on behalf of a repressive regime on the international stage.[11]
  • GSO: Grassroots Support Organization
  • INGO: International NGO[11]
  • MANGO: Market advocacy NGO
  • NGDO: Non-governmental development organization
  • NNGO: Northern (UK) NGO
  • PANGO: Party NGO — addressing political matters
  • PVDO: Private voluntary development organization[12] — the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) refers to NGOs as "private voluntary organizations".[13]
  • Quango: Quasi-autonomous NGO — often used derogatorily, these organizations rely on public funding.[11] They are prevalent in the United Kingdom (where there are more than 1,200), Ireland, and the Commonwealth.
  • SBO: Social benefit organization — a goal-oriented designation
  • SCO: Social change organization
  • SNGO: Southern (UK) NGO
  • TANGO: Technical assistance NGO
  • TNGO: Transnational NGO — coined during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGOs exist in two (or more) countries.
  • YOUNGO: Youth NGOs - advocacing for youth rights.

Activities

A roomful of people
Europe-Georgia Institute head George Melashvili addresses the audience at the launch of the "Europe in a suitcase" project by two NGOs (the EGI and the Friedrich Naumann Foundation), which aims to increase cooperation between European politicians, journalists and representatives of the civic sector and academia with their counterparts in Georgia.[14]

NGOs also play a critical role in driving change by advocating for policies and practices that benefit disadvantaged communities. They often work in partnership with other organizations, including government agencies, to address complex challenges that require a collaborative approach.[15] One of the key strengths of NGOs is their ability to work at the grassroots level and to connect with communities directly. This allows them to gain a deep understanding of the issues facing people and to tailor their services to meet the specific needs of each community. NGOs vary by method; some are primarily advocacy groups, and others conduct programs and activities. Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, may provide needy people with the equipment and skills to obtain food and drinking water; the Forum for Fact-finding Documentation and Advocacy (FFDA) helps provide legal assistance to victims of human-rights abuses. The Afghanistan Information Management Services provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations. Management techniques are crucial to project success.[16]

The World Bank classifies NGO activity into two general categories:[2][17][11]

  1. operational NGOs, whose primary function is the design and implementation of development-related projects
  2. advocacy NGOs, whose primary function is to defend or promote a particular cause and who seek to influence the policies and practices of International governmental organisations (IGOs).

NGOs may also conduct both activities: operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they face issues in the field, which could be remedied by policy change, and campaigning NGOs (such as human-rights organizations) often have programs which assist individual victims for whom they are trying to advocate.[10][11]

Operational

Operational NGOs seek to "achieve small-scale change directly through projects",[10] mobilizing financial resources, materials, and volunteers to create local programs. They hold large-scale fundraising events and may apply to governments and organizations for grants or contracts to raise money for projects. Operational NGOs often have a hierarchical structure; their headquarters are staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, and report to and communicate with operational fieldworkers on projects.[10] They are most often associated with the delivery of services or environmental issues, emergency relief, and public welfare. Operational NGOs may be subdivided into relief or development organizations, service-delivery or participatory, religious or secular, and public or private. Although operational NGOs may be community-based, many are national or international. The defining activity of an operational NGO is the implementation of projects.[10]

Advocacy

Advocacy NGOs or campaigning NGOs seek to "achieve large-scale change promoted indirectly through the influence of the political system".[10] They require an active, efficient group of professional members who can keep supporters informed and motivated. Campaigning NGOs must plan and host demonstrations and events which will attract media, their defining activity.[10]

Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues related to human rights, women's rights, and children's rights, and their primary purpose is to defend (or promote) a specific cause.[10]

Public relations

Non-governmental organisations need healthy public relations in order to meet their goals, and use sophisticated public-relations campaigns to raise funds and deal with governments. Interest groups may be politically important, influencing social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by the World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations.[18]

Structure

Staffing

On average, employees in NGOs earn 11-12% less compared to employees of for-profit organizations and government workers with the same number of qualifications .[19] However, in many cases NGOs employees receive more fringe benefits.[20]

Funding

NGOs are usually funded by donations, but some avoid formal funding and are run by volunteers. NGOs may have charitable status, or may be tax-exempt in recognition of their social, political, religious, or other purposes. Since the end of World War II, NGOs have had an increased role in international development,[21] particularly in the fields of humanitarian assistance and poverty alleviation.[22]


Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since "the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precise that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter."[23] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace, do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations.[24][25] The 1999 budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over $540 million.[26]

In America, government funding of NGOs relating to immigration is common, and is one of the stated methods the Office of Refugee Resettlement uses to help integrate immigrants to America.[27] Government funding sometimes accounts for the vast majority of overall funding for these NGOs, for example Global Refuge received 180 million dollars of its 207 million dollar budget from federal funding.[28] In recent years, government contracts to non-profits have exploded both in number and size. The Budget for the Office of Refugee Resettlement has increased from 1.8 billion in 2018 to 6.3 billion in 2022.[29] Critics point to the million-dollar salaries of CEOS and the use of funds for "music therapy" and "pet therapy" as a worrying sign that the money might not be appropriated to help the migrant crisis, but rather as a political move to keep wealthy backers loyal.

Overhead

Overhead is the amount of money spent on running an NGO, rather than on projects.[30] It includes office expenses,[30] salaries, and banking and bookkeeping costs. An NGO's percentage of its overall budget spent on overhead is often used to judge it; less than four percent is considered good.[30] According to the World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations, more than 86 percent should be spent on programs (less than 20 percent on overhead).[31] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has guidelines of five to seven percent overhead to receive funding;[32] the World Bank typically allows 37 percent.[33] A high percentage of overhead relative to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds.[34] High overhead costs may also generate public criticism.[35]

A sole focus on overhead, however, can be counterproductive.[36] Research published by the Urban Institute and Stanford University's Center for Social Innovation have shown that rating agencies create incentives for NGOs to lower (and hide) overhead costs, which may reduce organizational effectiveness by starving organizations of infrastructure to deliver services.[37][38] An alternative rating system would provide, in addition to financial data, a qualitative evaluation of an organization's transparency and governance:

  1. An assessment of program effectiveness
  2. Evaluation of feedback mechanisms for donors and beneficiaries
  3. Allowing a rated organization to respond to an evaluation by a rating agency[38]

Monitoring and control

In a March 2000 report on United Nations reform priorities, former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan favored international humanitarian intervention as the responsibility to protect[39] citizens from ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. After that report, the Canadian government launched its Responsibility to Protect (R2P)[40] project outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. The R2P project has wide applications, and among its more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention in the coup in Haiti.[41]

Large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments to preempt NGO campaigns against corporate practices. Collaboration between corporations and NGOs risks co-option of the weaker partner, typically the NGO.[42]

In December 2007, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Health Affairs S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division of Force Health Protection & Readiness.[43] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs about areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000.05,[44] in 2005, required the US Defense Department to regard stability-enhancing activities as equally important as combat. In compliance with international law, the department has developed a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict (such as Iraq) where customary lead agencies like the State Department and USAID have difficulty operating. International Health cultivates collaborative, arm's-length relationships with NGOs, recognizing their independence, expertise, and honest-broker status.

Regulation and environment by country

India

India has one of the world's largest NGO sectors, with over 3.7 million non-governmental organizations registered on the government's DARPAN portal as of 2024.[5] These organizations are primarily registered as Trusts, Societies, or Section 8 Companies and must obtain special certifications (12A and 80G) from the Income Tax Department to be tax-exempt.

A defining feature of the Indian NGO landscape is the stringent regulation of foreign funding, governed by the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 2010 (FCRA). An FCRA registration is mandatory for any NGO wishing to receive foreign donations. The Indian government has used the act to significantly tighten control over the sector, leading to the cancellation or non-renewal of FCRA licenses for thousands of organizations.[45] This crackdown has particularly affected NGOs working on human rights, environmental advocacy, and civil liberties, prompting criticism from civil society groups that the law is used to suppress dissent. The government maintains that such measures are necessary to ensure accountability and prevent foreign interference in domestic affairs.[46]

Uganda

In Uganda, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are regulated under the NGO Act 2016 and the NGO (Amendment) Act 2024.[47]

These laws require organizations to disclose the sources of their funds and encourage them to develop financial self-sufficiency. Oversight is carried out by the National Bureau for NGOs, which ensures that NGOs operate within the country’s legal and policy frameworks.

The 2016 Act introduced clear rules for NGO registration, reporting, and activities, while the 2024 amendment tightened compliance requirements and expanded the Bureau’s powers, particularly over financial reporting. Together, these laws aim to formalize the sector and provide closer monitoring of NGO activities in Uganda.

Over the years, debates have emerged about the role of foreign-funded NGOs in Uganda. Government officials have argued that external funding needs regulation to prevent undue foreign influence, especially in areas like governance, human rights, and elections. On the other hand, civil society groups maintain that international funding is essential for supporting development projects, humanitarian programs, and advocacy, especially where domestic resources are limited. This tension has occasionally led to friction between the authorities and NGOs.

The debate intensified in January 2026 when the National Bureau for NGOs suspended several well-known human rights and election-monitoring organizations. The Bureau cited Section 42(d) of the Act, which allows action against NGOs engaging in activities “prejudicial to national security.” The suspensions sparked concern among observers and civil society groups, who argued that such measures could restrict civic space and affect the work of NGOs during sensitive electoral periods.

In early 2026, discussions around further regulation of NGO funding gained momentum. According to New Vision and the International Center for Not-for-Profit Law (ICNL), the NGO Funding Bill (Uganda) was petitioned to Parliament by Martin Luther Nyanzi.[48][49] The petition called for new rules to increase government oversight of foreign funding, including vetting large international grants and encouraging NGOs to rely more on domestic funding sources.

Although the bill had not yet been formally introduced as government legislation, it sparked conversations among policymakers about potential changes to the regulatory framework. Key proposals associated with the petition include requiring prior government approval for large foreign grants, strengthening financial disclosure requirements, and improving coordination among regulatory agencies responsible for monitoring NGO activities.

Supporters of tighter regulation argue that these measures are necessary to ensure transparency, accountability, and protection of national sovereignty. They contend that such oversight would prevent external interference and align NGO work with Uganda’s development priorities. Some government officials and members of the ruling National Resistance Movement (NRM) have also voiced support for the petition, saying it addresses gaps in the current laws. However, civil society groups and development partners have expressed concern that the proposed measures could restrict NGOs’ ability to operate effectively. They warn that mandatory vetting and stricter controls could delay project implementation, increase administrative burdens, and potentially be applied selectively against organizations working on governance and human rights issues.[2]

Some stakeholders have also questioned whether the proposed changes would overlap with existing provisions in the NGO Act 2016 and the 2024 amendment, raising concerns about regulatory clarity. The discussion around the petition reflects ongoing tensions between the government’s desire for oversight and civil society’s need for operational freedom.

As of 2026, Parliament was still considering the petition, with consultations continuing among lawmakers, government agencies, and civil society actors. The outcome is expected to influence Uganda’s NGO regulatory framework, particularly regarding foreign funding and the balance between accountability, sovereignty, and the independence of civil society.[50][2]

Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe prohibits foreign NGOs from engaging in any work related to governance and limits the activities of local NGOs which accept foreign funding.[51] In 2004, ZANU-PF passed a bill which would have banned foreign NGOs, which was not signed by the president.[52][53] Zimbabwe also cracked down on foreign NGOs prior to the 2008 and 2013 elections, claiming they were too involved in politics.[54][55] Jeanne Elone wrote that Zimbabwe's constitutional guarantee of freedom of association is "obstructed by prohibitions against unregistered groups, complex registration procedures, vague grounds for denial, re-registration requirements, and barriers for international organizations".[51][56]

History

International non-governmental organizations date back to at least the late 18th century,[57][58] and there were an estimated 1,083 NGOs by 1914.[59] International NGOs were important to the anti-slavery and women's suffrage movements, and peaked at the time of the 1932–1934 World Disarmament Conference.[60]

The term became popular with the 1945 founding of the United Nations in 1945;[61] Article 71 in Chapter X of its charter[62] stipulated consultative status for organizations which are neither governments nor member states.[63] An international NGO was first defined in resolution 288 (X) of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) on February 27, 1950, as "any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty". The role of NGOs and other "major groups" in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[64] of Agenda 21.[65] The rise and fall of international NGOs matches contemporary events, waxing in periods of growth and waning in times of crisis.[66] The United Nations gave non-governmental organizations observer status at its assemblies and some meetings. According to the UN, an NGO is a private, not-for-profit organization which is independent of government control and is not merely an opposition political party.[67] An observer has access to most meetings and relevant documentation.[68]

The rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in Western countries as a result of the restructuring of the welfare state. Globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system, and was an important part of the Washington Consensus.[69]

Twentieth-century globalization increased the importance of NGOs. International treaties and organizations, such as the World Trade Organization, focused on capitalist interests. To counterbalance this trend, NGOs emphasize humanitarian issues, development aid, and sustainable development. An example is the World Social Forum, a rival convention of the World Economic Forum held each January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum, in Porto Alegre, Brazil in January 2005, was attended by representatives of over 1,000 NGOs.[70] The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, attended by about 2,400 representatives, was the first to demonstrate the power of international NGOs in environmental issues and sustainable development. Transnational NGO networking has become extensive.[71]

Although NGOs are subject to national laws and practices, four main groups may be found worldwide:[72]

  • Unincorporated and voluntary association
  • Trusts, charities, and foundations
  • Not-for-profit companies and co-operatives
  • Entities formed (or registered) under special NGO or nonprofit laws

The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in Strasbourg in 1986, creating a common legal basis for European NGOs. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to associate, which is fundamental for NGOs.

Hungary is the only country in the European Union to severely restrict NGOs such as corruption, LGBTQ rights and migration.

Economic theory

The question whether a public project should be owned by an NGO or by the government has been studied in economics using the tools of the incomplete contracting theory. According to this theory, not every detail of a relationship between decision makers can be contractually specified. Hence, in the future, the parties will bargain with each other to adapt their relationship to changing circumstances. Ownership matters because it determines the parties' willingness to make non-contractible investments. In the context of private firms, Oliver Hart has shown that the party with the more important investment task should be owner.[73] Yet, Besley and Ghatak have argued that in the context of public projects the investment technology does not matter.[74]

Specifically, even when the government is the key investor, ownership by an NGO is optimal if and only if the NGO has a larger valuation of the project than the government. However, the general validity of this argument has been questioned by follow-up research. In particular, ownership by the party with the larger valuation need not be optimal when the public good is partially excludable,[75] when both NGO and government may be indispensable,[76] or when the NGO and the government have different bargaining powers.[77] Moreover, the investment technology can matter for the optimal ownership structure when there are bargaining frictions,[78] when the parties interact repeatedly[79] or when the parties are asymmetrically informed.[80][81]

Influence on world affairs

Group of people (mostly women) in a room, with a woman speaking into a microphone
World NGO Day 2014 in Afghanistan
Today we celebrate the World NGO Day, we celebrate the key civil society's contribution to public space and their unique ability to give voice to those who would have went [sic] otherwise unheard.

European Commission Vice-President Federica Mogherini, commemorating the 2017 World NGO Day in Brussels[82]

Service-delivery NGOs provide public goods and services which governments of developing countries are unable to provide due to a lack of resources. They may be contractors or collaborate with government agencies to reduce the cost of public goods. Capacity-building NGOs affect "culture, structure, projects and daily operations".[83]

Advocacy and public-education NGOs aim to modify behavior and ideas through communication, crafting messages to promote social, political, or environmental changes (and as news organisations have cut foreign bureaux, many NGOs have begun to expand into news reporting).[84] Movement NGOs mobilize the public and coordinate large-scale collective activities to advance an activist agenda.[85]

Since the end of the Cold War, more NGOs in developed countries have pursued international outreach. By being involved in local and national social resistance, they have influenced domestic policy change in the developing world.[86] Specialized NGOs have forged partnerships, built networks, and found policy niches.[87]

Track II diplomacy

World NGO Day

World NGO Day, which is observed annually on 27 February, was recognised on 17 April 2010 by 12 countries of the IX Baltic Sea NGO Forum at the eighth Summit of the Baltic Sea States in Vilnius, Lithuania.[88] It was internationally recognised on 28 February 2014 in Helsinki, Finland by United Nations Development Programme administrator and former Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark.[89][90][91]

Diplomacy

In the context of NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations), diplomacy refers to the practice of building and maintaining partnerships with other organizations, stakeholders, and governments to achieve common objectives related to social or environmental issues.[92] NGOs often work in complex environments, where multiple stakeholders have different interests and goals. Diplomacy allows NGOs to navigate these complex environments and engage in constructive dialogue with different actors to promote understanding, build consensus, and facilitate cooperation.[93][94]


Criticism

Negative outcomes

Tanzanian author and academic Issa G. Shivji has criticised NGOs in two essays: "Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa" and "Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be". Shivji writes that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the "objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions".[95] According to Shivji, the rise of NGOs is part of a neoliberal paradigm and not motivated purely by altruism; NGOs want to change the world without understanding it, continuing an imperial relationship. In his study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, James Pfeiffer addresses their negative effects on the country's health. According to Pfeiffer, NGOs in Mozambique have "fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and contributed to growing local social inequality".[96] They can be uncoordinated, creating parallel projects which divert health-service workers from their normal duties to instead serve the NGOs. This undermines local primary-healthcare efforts, and removes the government's ability to maintain agency over its health sector.[96] Pfeiffer suggested a collaborative model of the NGO and the DPS (the Mozambique Provincial Health Directorate); the NGO should be "formally held to standard and adherence within the host country", reduce "showcase" projects and unsustainable parallel programs.[96]

In her 1997 Foreign Affairs article, Jessica Mathews wrote: "For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them ... often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest".[97] NGOs are unencumbered by policy trade-offs.[98]

According to Vijay Prashad, since the 1970s "the World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production."[99]

They have been questioned as "too much of a good thing".[100] Eric Werker and Faisal Ahmed made three critiques of NGOs in developing nations. Too many NGOs in a nation (particularly one ruled by a warlord) reduces an NGO's influence, since it can easily be replaced by another NGO. Resource allocation and outsourcing to local organizations in international-development projects incurs expenses for an NGO, lessening the resources and money available to the intended beneficiaries. NGO missions tend to be paternalistic, as well as expensive.[100]

The tax-exempt status of NGOs can result in the unintended consequence of negative value for society.[101]

Foreign influence

NGOs have been accused of preserving imperialism[102] (sometimes operating in a racialized manner in Third World countries), with a function similar to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Political philosopher Peter Hallward has called them an aristocratic form of politics,[103] noting that ActionAid and Christian Aid "effectively condoned the [2004 US-backed] coup" against an elected government in Haiti and are the "humanitarian face of imperialism".[104] Movements in the Global South (such as South Africa's Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign) have refused to work with NGOs, concerned that doing so would compromise their autonomy.[105][106] NGOs have been accused of weakening people by allowing their funders to prioritize stability over social justice.[107]

Workers from an NGO participating in local community work - some critics allege that NGOs prioritize their special interests over community wellbeing.

They have been accused of being designed by, and used as extensions of, the foreign-policy instruments of some Western countries and groups of countries.[108][109] Russian president Vladimir Putin made that accusation at the 43rd Munich Security Conference in 2007, saying that NGOs "are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control".[110] According to Michael Bond, "Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and ActionAid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in the US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers."[111]

NGOs have been challenged as not representing the needs of the developing world, diminishing the "Southern voice" and preserving the North–South divide.[112] The equality of relationships between northern and southern parts of an NGO, and between southern and northern NGOs working in partnership, has been questioned; the north may lead in advocacy and resource mobilization, and the south delivers services in the developing world.[112] The needs of the developing world may not be addressed appropriately, as northern NGOs do not consult (or participate in) partnerships or assign unrepresentative priorities.[113] NGOs have been accused of damaging the public sector in target countries, such as mismanagement resulting in the breakdown of public healthcare systems.[96]

"Foreign agent" laws and GONGOs

In the 21st century, a significant challenge for NGOs has been the rise of laws designed to restrict their activities, often under the pretext of protecting national sovereignty. A common tactic is the implementation of "foreign agent laws," which compel NGOs receiving any amount of international funding to register as "foreign agents." This term carries strong negative connotations, and registration often leads to prohibitive levels of government scrutiny, public distrust, and the eventual closure of the organization. Russia's 2012 foreign agent law is a prominent example, having been used to systematically dismantle civil society, including human rights groups and environmental advocates.[114] Similar laws have been implemented or proposed in other countries, including Hungary, Georgia, and Nicaragua, and are criticized by the UN and civil society groups as tools to suppress dissent.[115]

Conversely, some governments create what are known as GONGOs (Government-Organized Non-Governmental Organizations). These are organizations created and sponsored by a state to appear as independent civil society. GONGOs are often used by authoritarian regimes to advocate for state policies at international forums like the United Nations, co-opting the language of human rights to provide a false sense of legitimacy and counter criticism from genuine, independent NGOs.[116]

Spreading misinformation

NGOs have been accused of using misinformation in their campaigns out of self-interest. According to Doug Parr of Greenpeace, there had been "a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool ... but political and commercial interests are using science as a cover for getting their way."[117] Former policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek said, "If NGOs want the best for the environment, they have to learn to compromise."[117]

Challenges to legitimacy

Legitimacy, an important asset of an NGO, is its perception as an "independent voice".[118][119] Neera Chandhoke wrote in a Journal of World-Systems Research article, "To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation? And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome."[120]

An NGO's funding affects its legitimacy, and they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors.[121] Competition for funds has increased, in addition to the expectations of donors who may add conditions threatening an NGO's independence.[122] Dependence on official aid may dilute "the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments",[119] and changes in NGO funding sources have altered their function.[119]

The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate have grown rapidly since 1980, and particularly since 1990.[123] NGOs need to balance centralization and decentralization. Centralizing NGOs, particularly at the international level, can assign a common theme or set of goals. It may also be advantageous to decentralize an NGO, increasing its chances of responding flexibly and effectively to local issues by implementing projects which are modest in scale, easily monitored, produce immediate benefits, and where all involved know that corruption would be punished.[124]

Embezzlement, fraud and financial mismanagement reduce credibility of NGOs.[125]

Referring to the NGO culture in Germany in 2025, with many NGO receiving government funding while at the same time pretending to be independent, Ben Krischke wrote in Cicero, the transcription as "Near-Governmental-Organisaton" would be more appropriate. He pointed out, that the concept developed over time under the Angela Merkel administration, with the parties in government being unable to use taxpayer money for partisan activities, directly or via subsidiaries, the number of such activities, for which Krischke gave the example of several "Reporting point"-projects for "incidents below the criminal threshold", somehow rose. A transparency initiative, trying to unravel the path of taxpayer money to various NGOs, is consequently facing substantial opposition by NGO activists from the left.[126]

See also

  • Advocacy group (interest group)
  • Community foundation
  • Government-organized non-governmental organization (GONGO)
  • International organization
  • NGO-ization
  • List of active NGOs of national minorities
  • Quango

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "What is an NGO? What role does it play in civil society? | Knowledge base" (in en-US). https://learning.candid.org/resources/knowledge-base/ngo-definition-and-role. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Leverty, Sally (2008). "NGOs, the UN and APA". https://www.apa.org/international/united-nations/publications.  Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ "Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the United States" (fact sheet). 20 January 2017. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State. state.gov. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Vakil, Anna (December 1997). "Confronting the classification problem: Toward a taxonomy of NGOs". World Development 25 (12): 2057–2070. doi:10.1016/S0305-750X(97)00098-3. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "NGO Darpan". https://darpan.niti.gov.in/. 
  6. ↑ "Russia shuts down another leading human rights NGO". Reuters. 8 April 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russia-shuts-down-another-leading-human-rights-ngo-2022-04-08/. 
  7. ↑ "Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in the United States". 20 January 2017. https://www.state.gov/fact-sheet-non-governmental-organizations-ngos-in-the-united-states/. 
  8. ↑ "US Department of State". https://www.state.gov/non-governmental-organizations-ngos-in-the-united-states/. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Lawry, Lynn (2009). Guide to Nongovernmental Organizations for the Military. pp. 29–30. http://www.cdham.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Chapter-4.-NGO-Structure-Authority-and-Standards.pdf. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Willetts, Peter. "What is a Non-Governmental Organization?". UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. City University London. http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Folger, Jean (2021-01-18). "What is an NGO (Non-Governmental Organization)?" (in en). https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/13/what-is-non-government-organization.asp. 
  12. ↑ Lewis, David; Kanji, Nazneen (2009). Non-governmental organizations and development. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-203-87707-4. 
  13. ↑ "Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)" (in en). 25 September 2017. https://www.usaid.gov/partnership-opportunities/ngo. 
  14. ↑ "Europe in a suitcase: Oliver Wardrop Discussions" (in en-GB). 2019-10-29. https://egi.ge/en/archives/5187. 
  15. ↑ "NGO in Kanpur". 2022-01-29. https://www.yogyata.org.in/. 
  16. ↑ 100 LSE.ac.uk , Mukasa, Sarah. Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? A case study of an international NGO in Uganda. Publication of the Centre for Civil Society at the London School of Economics. 2002, p. 11-13.
  17. ↑ World Bank Criteria defining NGO
  18. ↑ "World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations – Code of Ethics and Conduct for NGOs". https://www.wango.org/codeofethics.aspx. 
  19. ↑ Preston, Anne E.; Sacks, Daniel W. (2010). "Nonprofit Wages: Theory and Evidence". Handbook of Research on Nonprofit Economics and Management. doi:10.4337/9781849803526.00017. ISBN 9781849803526. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781849803526.00017. 
  20. ↑ Ben-Ner, Avner; Ren, Ting; Paulson, Darla Flint (13 April 2010). "A Sectoral Comparison of Wage Levels and Wage Inequality in Human Services Industries". Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 40 (4): 608–633. doi:10.1177/0899764010365012. ISSN 0899-7640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0899764010365012. 
  21. ↑ Werker, Eric; Ahmed, Faisal Z. (2008). "What Do Nongovernmental Organizations Do?". Journal of Economic Perspectives 22 (2): 74–75. doi:10.1257/jep.22.2.73. 
  22. ↑ Werker, Eric; Ahmed, Faisal Z. (2008). "What Do Nongovernmental Organizations Do?". Journal of Economic Perspectives 22 (2): 74. doi:10.1257/jep.22.2.73. 
  23. ↑ David Rieff (10 June 2010). "NG-Uh-O – The trouble with humanitarianism". The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/world/75421/ng-uh-o. 
  24. ↑ Sarah Jane Gilbert; Ramon Casadesus-Masanell (8 September 2008). "HBS Cases: The Value of Environmental Activists". Harvard Business School Working Knowledge. http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5797.html. 
  25. ↑ "08 Annual Report". Greenpeace. http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/international-annualreport-2008.pdf. 
  26. ↑ "Poll shows power of AIPAC drops slightly". Jewish News Weekly of Northern California. 19 December 1999. http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/12687/edition_id/245/format/html/displaystory.html. 
  27. ↑ "GENERAL BACKGROUND". Administration for children and families.. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/orr/grant-funding/division-refugee-services. 
  28. ↑ "Lutheran Immigration And Refugee Service". 9 May 2013. https://projects.propublica.org/nonprofits/organizations/132574854/202312069349300221/full. 
  29. ↑ "Report claims nonprofits in Texas, Arizona are making billions off the migrant crisis". https://www.msn.com/en-us/money/news/report-claims-nonprofits-in-texas-arizona-are-making-billions-off-the-migrant-crisis/ar-BB1mopq1. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 "Defining certain terms in a budget". Funds for NGOs. 18 September 2011. http://www.fundsforngos.org/budget-for-ngos/defining-terms-budget/. 
  31. ↑ "Code of Ethics & Conduct for NGOs Compliance Manual". http://www.wango.org/codeofethics/ComplianceManual.pdf. 
  32. ↑ Garmaise, David (24 Jan 2012). "National NGOs Serving as PRs Excluded from the Global Fund's Policy on Percentage-Based Overhead Costs". http://www.aidspan.org/index.php?issue=174&article=2. 
  33. ↑ Gibbs, Christopher; Fumo, Claudia; Kuby, Thomas (1999). Nongovernmental organizations in World Bank supported projects : a review (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: World Bank. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8213-4456-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=77m7ExDp8DQC&pg=PA21. 
  34. ↑ Aras, Güler; Crowther, David, eds (2010). NGOs and social responsibility (1st ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-85724-295-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=T9mgFMJQhCsC&pg=PA121. 
  35. ↑ Kassahun, Samson (2004). Social capital for synergistic partnership : development of poor localities in urban Ethiopia (1. Aufl. ed.). Göttingen: Cuvillier. p. 153. ISBN 978-3-86537-222-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=TSjsfco0elIC&pg=PA153. 
  36. ↑ Schmitz, Hans Peter; Mitchell, George E. (9 March 2010). "Navigating Effectiveness". The Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations, Harvard University. http://hausercenter.org/iha/2010/03/09/navigating-effectiveness/. 
  37. ↑ Hager, Mark A.; Flack, Ted (August 1, 2004). "The Pros and Cons of Financial Efficiency Standards". http://www.urban.org/publications/311055.html. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Lowell, Stephanie; Trelstad, Brian; Meehan, Bill (Summer 2005). "The Ratings Game". http://www.ssireview.org/articles/entry/the_ratings_game/. 
  39. ↑ "Background Information on the Responsibility to Protect — Outreach Programme on the Rwanda Genocide and the United Nations". Un.org. https://www.un.org/en/preventgenocide/rwanda/about/bgresponsibility.shtml. 
  40. ↑ "International Coalition for the Responsibility to Protect (ICRtoP)". Responsibilitytoprotect.org. http://responsibilitytoprotect.org/. 
  41. ↑ Engler, Fenton; Yves, Anthony (2005). Canada in Haiti: Waging War on the Poor Majority. Vancouver, Winnipeg: RED Publishing. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-55266-168-0. http://www.fernwoodpublishing.ca/Canada-in-Haiti-Yves-Engler-Anthony-Fenton/. Retrieved 30 October 2011. 
  42. ↑ Baur, Dorothea; Schmitz, Hans Peter (2012). "Corporations and NGOs: When Accountability Leads to Co-optation". Journal of Business Ethics 106 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1007/s10551-011-1057-9. http://doc.rero.ch/record/312987/files/10551_2011_Article_1057.pdf. 
  43. ↑ "Force Health Protection & Readiness - December 08, 2006". http://www.ha.osd.mil/FHPR/default.cfm. 
  44. ↑ "Department of Defense Directive 3000.05". United States Department of Defense. 16 September 2009. http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300005p.pdf. 
  45. ↑ "India tightens rules for NGOs, suspends licence of prominent think-tank". Reuters. 29 March 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/india/india-tightens-rules-ngos-suspends-licence-prominent-think-tank-2023-03-29/. 
  46. ↑ "CBI raids 40 locations in FCRA violation case". The Hindu. 10 July 2022. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/cbi-raids-40-locations-in-fcra-violation-case/article65624131.ece. 
  47. ↑ "The Uganda NGO Act - Uganda National NGO Forum" (in en-US). https://ngoforum.or.ug/publications/ngo-act/. 
  48. ↑ "Uganda - ICNL Civic Freedom Monitor" (in en-US). https://www.icnl.org/resources/civic-freedom-monitor/uganda. 
  49. ↑ Nyeko, Nelson Kiva and Christopher (2026-03-04). "News: 16-year-old seeks legislation on CBOs state funding". https://www.newvision.co.ug/category/news/16-year-old-seeks-legislation-on-cbos-state-f-NV_229139_032026. 
  50. ↑ "NGOs feel the pinch as govt turns on the heat" (in en). 2026-03-29. https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/magazines/people-power/ngos-feel-the-pinch-as-govt-turns-on-the-heat-5406446. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Chikoto-Schultz, Grace; Uzochukwu, Kelechi (1 June 2016). "Governing Civil Society in Nigeria and Zimbabwe: A Question of Policy Process and Non-State Actors' Involvement" (in en). Nonprofit Policy Forum 7 (2): 137–170. doi:10.1515/npf-2015-0051. ISSN 2194-6035. 
  52. ↑ Moore, David (2005). "ZANU-PF & the Ghosts of Foreign Funding". Review of African Political Economy 32 (103): 156–162. ISSN 0305-6244. 
  53. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named FreedomHouse
  54. ↑ "Zimbabwe suspends NGOs as possible election looms" (in en). Reuters. 15 February 2012. https://www.reuters.com/article/ozatp-zimbabwe-ngos-idAFJOE81E06A20120215. Retrieved 29 July 2020. 
  55. ↑ Dugger, Celia W. (4 June 2008). "In a Crackdown, Zimbabwe Curbs Aid Groups". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/04/world/africa/04zimbabwe.html. Retrieved 29 July 2020. 
  56. ↑ Elone, Jeanne (2010). "Backlash against Democracy: The Regulation of Civil Society in Africa.". Democracy & Society 7 (2): 1–10. https://media.africaportal.org/documents/elone_civil_society1.pdf. 
  57. ↑ Davies, Thomas (2014). NGOs: A New History of Transnational Civil Society. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-19-938753-3. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/ngos-9780199387533. 
  58. ↑ Steve Charnovitz, "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, Michigan Journal of International Law, Winter 1997.
  59. ↑ Subcontracting Peace – The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. Ashgate. 2005. p. 21. 
  60. ↑ Davies, Thomas Richard (2007). The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: the Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-16258-7. 
  61. ↑ Davies, Thomas (2014). NGOs: A New History of Transnational Civil Society. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-938753-3. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/ngos-9780199387533. 
  62. ↑ "Charter of the United Nations: Chapter X". https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapt10.htm. 
  63. ↑ Götz, Norbert (2008-06-01). "Reframing NGOs: The Identity of an International Relations Non-Starter" (in en). European Journal of International Relations 14 (2): 231–258. doi:10.1177/1354066108089242. ISSN 1354-0661. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066108089242. 
  64. ↑ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. "Agenda 21 – Chapter 27: Strengthening the Role of Non-governmental Organizations: Partners for Sustainable Development, Earth Summit, 1992". Habitat.igc.org. http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/a21-27.htm. 
  65. ↑ "1996/31. Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations". Un.org. https://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1996/eres1996-31.htm. 
  66. ↑ Boli, J. and Thomas, G. M. (1997) World Culture in the World Polity: A century of International Non-Governmental Organization. American Sociological Review. pp. 177
  67. ↑ "United Nations: Definitions and Terms". https://www.apa.org/international/united-nations/acronyms.pdf. 
  68. ↑ "About Permanent Observers". https://www.un.org/en/about-us/about-permanent-observers. 
  69. ↑ Pawel Zaleski Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector, [in:] Gawin, Dariusz & Glinski, Piotr [ed.]: "Civil Society in the Making", IFiS Publishers, Warsaw (2006)
  70. ↑ Bartlett, Lauren (2005). "NGO Update". Human Rights Brief 12 (3): 44–45. 
  71. ↑ Stone, Diane (2004). "Transfer Agents and Global Networks in the 'Transnationalisation' of Policy". Journal of European Public Policy.austiniskewl 11 (3): 545–566. doi:10.1080/13501760410001694291. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1742/1/WRAP_Stone_JEPP_Transnational_Transfer.pdf. 
  72. ↑ Stillman, Grant B. (2007). Global Standard NGOs: The Essential Elements of Good Practice. Geneva: Lulu: Grant B. Stillman. pp. 13–14. https://books.google.com/books?id=icRqqTdl_EIC. 
  73. ↑ Hart, Oliver D. (1995). Firms, contracts, and financial structure. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-828881-6. OCLC 32703648. 
  74. ↑ Besley, Timothy; Ghatak, Maitreesh (2001). "Government Versus Private Ownership of Public Goods" (in en). The Quarterly Journal of Economics 116 (4): 1343–1372. doi:10.1162/003355301753265598. ISSN 0033-5533. https://academic.oup.com/qje/article/116/4/1343/1903229. 
  75. ↑ Francesconi, Marco; Muthoo, Abhinay (2011). "Control Rights in Complex Partnerships" (in en). Journal of the European Economic Association 9 (3): 551–589. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01017.x. ISSN 1542-4766. https://academic.oup.com/jeea/article/9/3/551/2298423. 
  76. ↑ Halonen-Akatwijuka, Maija (2012). "Nature of human capital, technology and ownership of public goods" (in en). Journal of Public Economics. Fiscal Federalism 96 (11): 939–945. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.07.005. ISSN 0047-2727. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272712000862. 
  77. ↑ Schmitz, Patrick W. (2013). "Incomplete contracts and optimal ownership of public goods" (in en). Economics Letters 118 (1): 94–96. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2012.09.033. ISSN 0165-1765. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016517651200540X. 
  78. ↑ Schmitz, Patrick W. (2015). "Government versus private ownership of public goods: The role of bargaining frictions" (in en). Journal of Public Economics 132: 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2015.09.009. ISSN 0047-2727. 
  79. ↑ Halonen-Akatwijuka, Maija; Pafilis, Evagelos (2020). "Common ownership of public goods" (in en). Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 180: 555–578. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.10.002. ISSN 0167-2681. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016726812030370X. 
  80. ↑ Schmitz, Patrick W. (2021). "Optimal ownership of public goods under asymmetric information" (in en). Journal of Public Economics 198. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104424. ISSN 0047-2727. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272721000608. 
  81. ↑ Schmitz, Patrick W. (2024). "When should the government own the physical assets needed to provide public goods?" (in en). Economics Letters 241. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2024.111830. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165176524003148. 
  82. ↑ "Statement on the occasion of the World NGO Day 2017". https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/21535/Statement%20on%20the%20occasion%20of%20the%20World%20NGO%20Day%202017. 
  83. ↑ Roberts, Susan G.; Jones III, John P.; Frohling, Oliver (2005). "NGOs and the Globalization of Managerialism: A Research Framework". World Development (Great Britain) 33 (11): 1846. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.07.004. 
  84. ↑ Kate, Wright (2018). Who's Reporting Africa Now? Non-Governmental Organizations, Journalists, and Multimedia. Oxford: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-5106-4. 
  85. ↑ Mati, Jacob Mwathi; Wu, Fengshi; Edwards, Bob; El Taraboulsi, Sherine N.; Smith, David H. (2016). "Social Movements and Activist-Protest Volunteering". The Palgrave Handbook of Volunteering, Civic Participation, and Nonprofit Associations. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 516–538. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-26317-9_25. ISBN 978-1-137-26316-2. 
  86. ↑ {Keck, Margaret, and Kathryn Sikkink, 1998. Activists beyond borders: Advocacy networks in international politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.}
  87. ↑ Wu, Fengshi (2005). "International Non-Governmental Actors in HIV/AIDS Prevention in China". Cell Research 15 (11–12): 919–922. doi:10.1038/sj.cr.7290369. PMID 16354570. 
  88. ↑ "Resolution of the IX Baltic Sea NGO Forum to the 8th Summit of the Baltic Sea States due on 1-2 June 2010". 3sektorius. 17 April 2010. http://www.3sektorius.lt/forumas/2010/?lng=en&id=5. 
  89. ↑ "The Week Ahead at the United Nations: the European Perspective (07/14): 17–24 February 2014". United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe. http://www.unric.org/en/week-ahead-archives/29049-the-week-ahead-at-the-united-nations-the-european-perspective-0714-17-24-february-2014. 
  90. ↑ "World NGO Day - International Celebration and Recognition". 6 March 2014. http://www.finnbay.com/media/news/world-ngo-day-international-celebration-recognition/. 
  91. ↑ "Helen Clark on World NGO Day". United Nations Development Programme. 27 February 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQwdcSsF0B8. 
  92. ↑ "NGO diplomacy". https://www.diplomacy.edu/topics/ngo-diplomacy/. "NGO diplomacy refers to the efforts made by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to influence international policy and decision-making processes." 
  93. ↑ "Redefining the neutral intermediary role: Balancing theoretical ideas with practical realities through the ICRC's experience in Yemen" (in en). 2025-03-19. http://international-review.icrc.org/articles/redefining-the-neutral-intermediary-role-927. 
  94. ↑ "NGO diplomacy - Diplo" (in en-GB). https://www.diplomacy.edu/topics/ngo-diplomacy/. 
  95. ↑ Shivji, Issa G. (2007). Silence in NGO discourse: the role and future of NGOs in Africa. Oxford, UK: Fahamu. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-9545637-5-2. 
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 Pfeiffer, J (2003). "International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration". Social Science & Medicine 56 (4): 725–738. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(02)00068-0. PMID 12560007. 
  97. ↑ Jessica T. Mathews (January–February 1997). "Power Shift". Foreign Affairs (January/February 1997). http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/52644/jessica-t-mathews/power-shift. Retrieved 1 June 2012. 
  98. ↑ Bond, M. (2000) "The Backlash against NGOs". Prospect.
  99. ↑ "Mother Teresa: A Communist View". http://www.cpa.org.au/amrarch/40vp.html. , Vijay Prashad, Australian Marxist Review, No. 40 August 1998
  100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 Werker, Eric; Ahmed, Faisal Z. (2008). "What Do Nongovernmental Organizations Do?". Journal of Economic Perspectives 22 (2): 73–92. doi:10.1257/jep.22.2.73. 
  101. ↑ Gamble, Edward N.; Muñoz, Pablo (2022). "When Tax-Exempt Nonprofits Detract Value from Society". Academy of Management Perspectives 36 (1): 50–92. doi:10.5465/amp.2018.0027. ISSN 1558-9080. https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/1239986/36272.pdf. Retrieved 5 February 2025. 
  102. ↑ Abahlali baseMjondolo, "Rethinking Public Participation from below" , Critical Dialogue (2006)
  103. ↑ Hallward, Peter (April 2008). Damming the Flood: Haiti and the Politics of Containment. London: Verso. ISBN 9781844672349. https://archive.org/details/dammingfloodhait00hall. 
  104. ↑ "Peter Hallward responds to BBC Radio 4 program on Haiti", Tanbou, 11 January 2011.
  105. ↑ "Building unity in diversity: Social movement activism in the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign ", Sophie Oldfield and Kristian Stokke, 2004.
  106. ↑ Crump, Marlon (November 18, 2009). "Ashraf Cassiem: South African Resistance Against Evictions". http://www.poormagazine.org/node/2718. 
  107. ↑ Appasamy, Youlendree (July 3, 2013). "Are NGOs enemies of SA's rural folk?". http://www.grocotts.co.za/content/are-ngos-enemies-sas-rural-folk-03-07-2013. 
  108. ↑ O'Connor, Jenny (15 April 2012). "NGO: The Guise of Innocence". http://www.newleftproject.org/index.php/site/article_comments/ngo_the_guise_of_innocence. 
  109. ↑ Topping, Alexandra; Elder, Miriam (19 January 2012). "Britain admits 'fake rock' plot to spy on Russians". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jan/19/fake-rock-plot-spy-russians. 
  110. ↑ Putin, Vladimir (10 February 2007). Speech and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (Speech). 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy. Munich, Germany. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012 – via President of Russia.
  111. ↑ Bond, Michael. "The Backlash against NGOs". Prospect, April 2000, pp.321. Print.
  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 Lindenberg, M. and Bryant, C. (2001) Going Global: Transforming Relief and Development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press.
  113. ↑ , Jenkins, R. (2001) "Corporate Codes of Conduct: Self-Regulation in a Global Economy". Technology, Business and Society Programme Paper Number 2. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.
  114. ↑ "10 Years of Russia’s ‘Foreign Agents’ Law". Human Rights Watch. 1 December 2022. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/12/01/10-years-russias-foreign-agents-law. 
  115. ↑ "What is Georgia's 'foreign agent' bill and why is it so controversial?". Reuters. 13 May 2024. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/what-is-georgias-foreign-agent-bill-why-is-it-so-controversial-2024-05-13/. 
  116. ↑ Weatherley, Robert (2017). Making China Strong: The Role of Nationalism in Chinese Thinking on Democracy and Human Rights. Routledge. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-138-20627-7. 
  117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 Bond, Michael (April 2000), "The Backlash against NGOs", Prospect: p. 323, https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/thebacklashagainstngos 
  118. ↑ Weber, N.; Christopherson, T. (2002). "The influence of non-governmental organizations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European policy process". Forest Policy and Economics 4 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/s1389-9341(01)00070-3. Bibcode: 2002ForPE...4....1W. 
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 119.2 Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. "In Edwards, M. and Hulme, D., ed. 2002." The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Chapter 11.
  120. ↑ Chandhoke, Neera (2005). "How Global Is Global Civil Society?". Journal of World-Systems Research 11 (2): 326–327. doi:10.5195/JWSR.2005.388. 
  121. ↑ Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (1996) Too Close for comfort? The impact of official aid on Non-Governmental Organisations. "World Development." 24(6), pp. 961–973.
  122. ↑ Ebrahim, A. (2003) "Accountability in practice: Mechanisms for NGOs". World Development 31(5), pp. 813–829.
  123. ↑ Avina, J. (1993) The Evolutionary Life Cycles if Non-Governmental Development Organisations. "Public Administration and Development." 13(5), pp. 453–474.
  124. ↑ Anheier, H. and Themudo, N. (2002) Organisational forms of global civil society: Implications of going global. In: Anheier, H. Glasius, M. Kaldor, M, ed 2002.
  125. ↑ Gibelman, Margaret; Gelman, Sheldon R. (2004). "A Loss of Credibility: Patterns of Wrongdoing Among Nongovernmental Organizations". VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 15 (4): 355–381. doi:10.1007/s11266-004-1237-7. ISSN 0957-8765. 
  126. ↑ Krischke, Ben (23 June 2025). "Wie eine neue Transparenz-Initiative von linken Aktivisten und NGOs gemobbt wird" (in de). https://www.cicero.de/kultur/initiative-transparente-demokratie-lobbycontrol-amadeu-antonio-kritik-ngo. 

Further reading

  • Norbert Götz. "Reframing NGOs: The Identity of an International Relations Non-Starter." European Journal of International Relations 14 (2008) 2: 231–258.
  • Norbert Götz. "Civil Society and NGO: Far from Unproblematic Concepts." The Ashgate Research Companion to Non-State Actors. Bob Reinalda (ed.). Aldershot: Ashgate, 2011. 185–196.
  • Hilton, Matthew et al. eds. The Politics of Expertise: How NGOs Shaped Modern Britain (2013) ISBN 978-0-19-969187-6
  • Watkins; Cotts, Susan; Swidler, Ann; Hannan, Thomas (2012). "Outsourcing Social Transformation: Development NGOs as Organizations". Annual Review of Sociology 38: 285–315. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145516. 
  • Davies, T. 2014. NGOs: A New History of Transnational Civil Society. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-938753-3.
  • Velusamy M. Non-Governmental Organisation, Dominant Publishers & Distribution Ltd, New Delhi
  • Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland.co.za
  • Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio.org.ni, PDF Edinter.net Envio, Managua, 2001
  • Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey ISBN 978-0-85255-817-1
  • Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8
  • Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson, and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research iNGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea während der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.
  • Lyal S. Sunga, "Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq", in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ. Press, 2007.
  • Lyal S. Sunga, "NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations" (2005) 41–69.
  • Werker, Eric; Ahmed, Faisal Z (1 March 2008). "What Do Nongovernmental Organizations Do?". Journal of Economic Perspectives 22 (2): 73–92. doi:10.1257/jep.22.2.73. ISSN 0895-3309. 
  • Charnovitz, Steve (1997). "Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance". Michigan Journal of International Law 18: 183–286. 
  • Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, 'Critical Dialogue', 2006
  • Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press).
  • Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960?, Cliodynamics, 1, (1).
  • Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, POLICY vs. PAPER CLIPS - How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient – Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books.
  • Lewis, David; Kanji, Nazneen (2009). Non-governmental organizations and development. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-45430-8. 
  • Shivji, Issa G. (2007-06-30). Silences in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi Oxford: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-9545637-5-2. 
  • Steffek, Jens; Hahn, Kristina (2010). Evaluating transnational NGOs: legitimacy, accountability, representation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-22871-9. 
  • Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations.



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Social:Non-governmental_organization&oldid=4336924"