Social:Scythian languages

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Short description: Group of Eastern Iranic languages
Scythian
Assimilation of Baltic and Aryan Peoples by Uralic Speakers in the Middle and Upper Volga Basin (Shaded Relief BG).png
The approximate distribution of Eastern Iranic languages and peoples in 100 BC appears in green.
Native toSarmatia, Scythia, Sistan, Scythia Minor, Alania
RegionCentral Asia, West Asia, Eastern Europe
EthnicityScythians, Sarmatians, and Alans
EraClassical antiquity, late antiquity

Middle Ages (Alanian)

Modern era (Ossetian)
Dialects
Language codes
ISO 639-3Variously:
xsc – Scythian
xln – Alanian
oos – Old Ossetian
xsc Scythian
 xln Alanian
 oos Old Ossetian
Glottologsogd1247  Sogdic-Ossetic[1]
saka1303  Saka-Wakhi[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Scythian languages (/ˈsɪθiən/ or /ˈsɪðiən/ or /ˈskɪθiən/) are a group of Eastern Iranic languages of the classical and late antique period (the Middle Iranic period), spoken in a vast region of Eurasia by the populations belonging to the Scythian cultures and their descendants. The dominant ethnic groups among the Scythian-speakers were nomadic pastoralists of Central Asia and the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Fragments of their speech known from inscriptions and words quoted in ancient authors as well as analysis of their names indicate that it was an Indo-European language, more specifically from the Iranic group of Indo-Iranic languages.

Most of the Scythian languages eventually became extinct, except for modern Ossetian (which descends from the Alanian dialect of Scytho-Sarmatian), Wakhi (which descends from the Khotanese and Tumshuqese forms of Scytho-Khotanese), and Yaghnobi (which descends from Sogdian). Alexander Lubotsky summarizes the known linguistic landscape as follows:[3]

Unfortunately, we know next to nothing about the Scythian of that period [Old Iranian] – we have only a couple of personal and tribal names in Greek and Persian sources at our disposal – and cannot even determine with any degree of certainty whether it was a single language.

Classification

Ossetian is an Eastern Iranic language. The vast majority of Scythological scholars agree in considering the Scythian languages a part of the Eastern Iranic languages too. This relies principally on the fact that the Greek inscriptions of the Northern Black Sea Coast contain several hundreds of Sarmatian names showing a close affinity to the Ossetian language.[4][5]

Some scholars detect a division of Scythian into two dialects: a western, more conservative dialect, and an eastern, more innovative one.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no name must have content The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum:

  • Alanian languages or Scytho-Sarmatian in the west: were spoken by people originally of Iranic stock from the 8th and 7th century BC onwards in the area of Ukraine , Southern Russia and Kazakhstan.
    • Modern Ossetian survives as a continuation of the language family possibly represented by Scytho-Sarmatian inscriptions, although the Scytho-Sarmatian language family "does not simply represent the same [Ossetian] language" at an earlier date.
A document from Khotan written in Khotanese Saka, part of the Eastern Iranic branch of the Indo-European languages, listing the animals of the Chinese zodiac in the cycle of predictions for people born in that year; ink on paper, early 9th century
  • Saka languages or Scytho-Khotanese in the east: spoken in the first century in the Kingdom of Khotan (located in present-day Xinjiang, China), and including the Khotanese of Khotan and Tumshuqese of Tumshuq.[6]

It is highly probable that already in the Old Iranic period there were some eastern Scythian dialects which gave rise to ancestor(s) of Sogdian language and Yaghnobi, although data required to test this hypothesis is presently lacking.[7]

The Scythian languages shared some features with other Eastern Iranic languages, such as the use of the suffix -ta to denote the plural form, which is also present in Sogdian, Chorasmian, Ossetian, and Yaghnobi.[8]

Phonology

The Pontic Scythian language possessed the following phonemes:[9]

Vowels
Front Back
Close i iː u uː
Mid eː oː
Open a aː
Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Labiovelar Glottal
Plosive p b t d (earliest) k ɡ
Affricate t͡s t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Fricative f θ ð (earlier) s z ʃ ʒ x xʷ h
Sonorant m w l (later) n r j (ŋ)

The western dialects of the Scythian languages had experienced an evolution of the Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into the Proto-Scythian sound /ð/, which in the Cimmerian and Pontic dialects of Scythian became the sound /l/. Scythian shares the evolution of Proto-Iranic sound /d/ into /ð/ with all Eastern Iranic languages with the exception of Ossetian, Yaghnobi, and Ishkashimi; and the later evolution of /ð/ into /l/ is also present in several Eastern Iranic languages such as Bactrian, Pashto, Munjani, and Yidgha.[8][9]

History

Early Eastern Iranic peoples originated in the Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BC) in Central Asia.[10] The Scythians migrated from Central Asia toward Eastern Europe in the 8th and 7th century BC, occupying today's Southern Russia and Ukraine and the Carpathian Basin and parts of Moldova and Dobruja. They disappeared from history after the Hunnish invasion of Europe in the 5th century AD, and Turkic (Avar, Batsange, etc.) and Slavic peoples probably assimilated most people speaking Scythian.[citation needed] However, in the Caucasus, the Ossetian language belonging to the Scythian linguistic continuum remains in use (As of 2007), while in Central Asia, some languages belonging to Eastern Iranic group are still spoken, namely Pashto, Pamir languages and Yaghnobi.

Corpus

Inscriptions

Some scholars ascribe certain inscribed objects found in the Carpathian Basin and in Central Asia to the Scythians, but the interpretation of these inscriptions remains disputed (given that nobody has definitively identified the alphabet or translated the content).

Saqqez inscription

An inscription from Saqqez, dating from the Scythian presence in Western Asia, and written in the Hieroglyphic Luwian script, may represent Scythian:[11]

Inscription of Saqqez
Line Phonetic transliteration Scythian transliteration English translation
1 pa-tì-na-sa-nà tà-pá wá-s₆-na-m₅ XL was-was-ki XXX ár-s-tí-m₅ ś₃-kar-kar (HA) har-s₆-ta₅ LUGAL patinasana tapa. vasnam: 40 vasaka 30 arzatam šikar. UTA harsta XŠAYAI. Delivered dish. Value: 40 calves 30 silver šiqlu. And it was presented to the king.
2 par-tì-ta₅-wa₅ ki-ś₃-a₄-á KUR-u-pa-ti QU-wa-a₅ Partitava xšaya DAHYUupati xva- King Partitavas, the masters of the land pro-
3 i₅-pa-ś₂-a-m₂ ipašyam -perty

The king Partitava mentioned in this inscription is the same individual as the Scythian king Pṛtatavah, whose name is attested as Bartatua in Assyrian records and as Protothyēs in Ancient Greece records.[12]

Issyk inscription

The Issyk inscription is not yet certainly deciphered, and is probably in a Scythian dialect, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language. János Harmatta, using the Kharoṣṭhī script, identified the language as a Khotanese Saka dialect spoken by the Kushans, tentatively translating:[13]

Issyk inscription
Line Transliteration English translation
1 za(ṃ)-ri ko-la(ṃ) mi(ṃ)-vaṃ vaṃ-va pa-zaṃ pa-na de-ka mi(ṃ)-ri-to The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal,
2 ña-ka mi pa-zaṃ vaṃ-va va-za(ṃ)-na vaṃ. then added cooked fresh butter on

Personal names

The primary sources for Scythian words remain the Scythian toponyms, tribal names, and numerous personal names in the ancient Greek texts and in the Greek inscriptions found in the Greek colonies on the Northern Black Sea Coast. These names suggest that the Sarmatian language had close similarities to modern Ossetian.[14]

Recorded Scythian personal names include:

Name Attested forms Notes
*Ariyapaiϑah Ancient Greek: Composed of:[15][16][17][18]
*Ariya-, meaning "Aryan" and "Iranic."
*paiϑah-, meaning "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (paēsa).
*Hiϑāmϑrauša Ancient Greek: Meaning "prospering the ally." Composed of:[19]
a cognate of Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (hiϑąm), meaning "companion."
a cognate of Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (ϑraoš-), meaning "to prosper."
*Hupāyā Ancient Greek: Composed of:[16]
*hu-, "good."
*pāyā-, "protection"; an abstraction of the root *pā-, "to protect."
*Pālaka Ancient Greek: From an earlier form *Pāδaka after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "tall-legged" and "long-legged." Composed of:[20][21]
*pāla-, "foot," from earlier *pāδa-.
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
*Pṛtatavah Akkadian: 𒁹𒁇𒋫𒌅𒀀, romanized: Bartatua or Partatua[22]
Ancient Greek: 		Means "who is mighty in battle." Composed of:[23][24][25]
*pṛta- "battle." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (pəšana) and Vedic Sanskrit पृत् (pṛt-), both meaning "battle."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (-tauuah-).
*Pr̥ϑutavā
*pr̥ϑu- "wide, broad." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (pərᵊϑu-).
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (-tauuah-).
*Šaitafarna Ancient Greek: or Ancient Greek: From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaitafarna,[26] possibly meaning "with a bright farna," itself composed of:[27]
*xšaita-, "brilliant."
*-farna, "khvarenah."
*Šaϑraka Ancient Greek: From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšaϑraka,[26] itself composed of:[28]
*xšaϑra-, "power."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.

Cognate with Ossetian Æхсæртæг (Æxsærtæg)[29] and Æхсæртæггатӕ (Æxsærtæggatæ).[30]

*Šīraka Ancient Greek: From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[26] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[28]
*xšīra-, "milk."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
*Skilura Ancient Greek: From an earlier form *Skiδura after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/. Means "sharp" and "victorious."[20]
*Skula Ancient Greek: From the Scythian endonym *Skula, itself a later dialectal form of *Skuδa resulting from a sound change from /δ/ to /l/.[31]
*Spakāya Akkadian: 𒁹𒅖𒉺𒅗𒀀𒀀, romanized: Išpakāya[32] Hypocoristic derivation from the word *spaka, meaning "dog."[33][34][17]
*Spargapis Ancient Greek: Composed of:[16][17][35][18]
*sparga- "scion" and "descendant." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (sparᵊγa).
*pis- "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (paēsa).

*Spargapis and *Spargapaiϑah are variants of the same name.[36][16][35]

*Spargapaiϑah Ancient Greek: Composed of:[16][35][17][18]
*sparga- "scion" and "descendant." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (sparᵊγa).
*paiϑah- "decoration" and "adornment." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (paēsa).

*Spargapaiϑah and *Spargapis are variants of the same name.[36][16][35]

*Tigratavā Ancient Greek:
*tigra- "arrow." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (tiγri-), "arrow."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (-tauuah-).
*Taumuriya Ancient Greek: Derived from a cognate of Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (taoxman) and Old Persian 𐎫𐎢𐎶𐎠 (taumā), meaning "seed," "germ," and "kinship."[16]
*Uxtamazatā Ancient Greek: Means "possessing greatness through his words." Composed of:[16]
*uxta-, "word." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (uxta), "spoken," and Template:Script/Avestan (uxδa), "word."
*-mazatā-, "great."
*Varika Ancient Greek: Hypocorostic derivation from the word *vari-, meaning "chest armour, armour." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (vaⁱri-), Template:Script/Avestan (uuari-) "chest armour."[16]

Tribal names

Recorded Scythian tribal names include:

Name Attested forms Notes
*Haxāϑrauša Ancient Greek: Means "prospering the friend/socius." Composed of:[19]
a cognate of Old Persian 𐏃𐎧𐎠 (haxā-), meaning "friend."
a cognate of Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (ϑraoš-), meaning "to prosper."
*Šīraka Ancient Greek: From a sibilisation of Proto-Scythian *Xšīraka,[26] possibly meaning "milk-consumer," itself composed of:[28]
*xšīra-, "milk."
*-ka, hypocoristic suffix.
[*Skuδa] error: {{transl}}: unrecognized language / script code: xsc-x-pontic (help)[37][38] Akkadian: 𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀, romanized: Iškuzaya
𒊍𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Asguzaya)
𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Askuzaya)
𒀾𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀 (Ašguzaya)

Ancient Greek:

*Skuδa, the Scythian endonym,[37][38]

From the Proto-Indo-European root skewd-, itself meaning lit. shooter, archer, whence also English "shoot".[39]

*Skula Ancient Greek:[40][9] Later form of *Skuδa resulting from the evolution of Proto-Scythian /δ/ into Scythian /l/.[37]
*Paralāta Ancient Greek:[40][9] Cognate with Young Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (Paraδāta), meaning "placed at the front."[17]

Place names

Some scholars believe that many toponyms and hydronyms of the Russian and Ukrainian steppe have Scythian links. For example, Vasmer associates the name of the river Don with an assumed/reconstructed unattested Scythian word *dānu "water, river", and with Avestan dānu-, Pashto dand and Ossetian don.[41] The river names Don, Donets, Dnieper, Danube, and Dniester, and lake Donuzlav (the deepest one in Crimea) may also belong with the same word-group.[42]

Recorded Scythian place names include:

Name Attested forms Notes
*Baurustāna Ancient Greek: Means "place of beavers." Composed of:[43]
*bauru- "beaver." Cognate of:
*stāna "space."
*Dānu Ancient Greek: Means "river."[16]
*Pantikapa Ancient Greek:
*panti-, "path." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (paṇ‎tā̊), "path."
*kapa-, "fish." Compare with Khotanese Saka kavā and Ossetian Кӕф kæf.
*Rahā Ancient Greek: Means "wetness." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (raŋhā) and Vedic Sanskrit रसा (rasā́).[44]
*Varu Ancient Greek: Means "broad."[45]

Herodotus' Scythian etymologies

The Greek historian Herodotus provides another source of Scythian; he reports that the Scythians called the Amazons Oiorpata, and explains the name as a compound of oior, meaning "man", and pata, meaning "to kill" (Hist. 4,110).

  • Most scholars associate oior "man" with Avestan vīra- "man, hero", Sanskrit vīra-, Latin vir (gen. virī) "man, hero, husband",[46] PIE *wiHrós. Various explanations account for pata "kill":
    1. Persian pat- "(to) kill", patxuste "killed";[47]
    2. Sogdian pt- "(to) kill", ptgawsty "killed";[48]
    3. Ossetian fædyn "cleave", Sanskrit pātayati "fell", PIE *peth₂- "fall".[49]
    4. Avestan paiti- "lord", Sanskrit páti, PIE *pótis, cf. Lat. potestate (i.e. "man-ruler");[50]
    5. Ossetian maryn "kill", Pashto mrəl, Sanskrit mārayati, PIE *mer- "die" (confusion of Greek Μ and Π);[51]
  • Alternatively, one scholar suggests Iranic aiwa- "one" + warah- "breast",[52] the Amazons believed to have removed a breast to aid drawing a bow, according to some ancient folklorists, and as reflected in Greek folk-etymology: a- (privative) + mazos, "without breast".

Elsewhere Herodotus explains the name of the mythical one-eyed tribe Arimaspoi as a compound of the Scythian words arima, meaning "one", and spu, meaning "eye" (Hist. 4,27).

  • Some scholars connect arima "one" with Ossetian ærmæst "only", Avestic airime "quiet", Greek erēmos "empty", PIE *h₁(e)rh₁mo-?, and spu "eye" with Avestic spas- "foretell", Sanskrit spaś-, PIE *speḱ- "see".[53]
  • However, Iranic usually expresses "one" and "eye" with words like aiwa- and čašman- (Ossetian īw and cæst).
  • Other scholars reject Herodotus' etymology and derive the ethnonym Arimaspoi from Iranic aspa- "horse" instead.[54]
  • Or the first part of the name may reflect something like Iranic raiwant- "rich", cf. Ossetian riwæ "rich".[55]

Scythian theonyms

Name Attested forms Notes
*Tapatī́ Ancient Greek:

Related to:[56][57][58]

Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (tāpaiieⁱti), “to warm.”
Sanskrit तापयति (tapayati), “to heat” and “to warm”; theonym तपती (Tapatī); तपस् (tápas)
Latin tepeo.
*Api Ancient Greek:
and Απια, romanized: Apia
 Related to Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (api), "water."[57]
*Targī̆tavah Ancient Greek: Means "possessing the might of the goddess Tarkā." Composed of:[59]
*Targiya, "of the goddess Tarkā."
*-tavah- "strength, power." Compare with Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (-tauuah-).
Ancient Greek: Composed of:[57]
Iranic theonym *Arti
a term related to *paya, "pasture" and *pati, "lord."
*Apatura Ancient Greek: Means "swift water." Composed of:[60]
*ap-, "water." Related to Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (ap-), "water."
*tura-, "quick" or "mighty."
*Gaiϑāsūra Ancient Greek: Composed of:[17]
*gaiϑā, "herd" and "possessions." Cognate of Template:Script/Avestan (gaoiiaoⁱtiš), "cow pasture."[61]
*sūra, "strong" and "mighty."
Ancient Greek:
and Θαμιμασαδας, romanized: Thamimasadas
 Composed of:
a possible cognate of Avestan Template:Script/Avestan (ϑβāṣ̌a), "firmament," and Vedic Sanskrit त्वक्ष् (tvakṣ-) or तक्ष् (takṣ-), "to create by putting into motion."
mazatā, meaning "great."[16]
*Lipoxšaya Ancient Greek: From an earlier form *Δipoxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/.

Means "king of radiance" and "king of heaven." Composed of:[62]

*lipa, from earlier *δipa, "to be bright" as well as "sky" and "heaven."
*-xšaya, "ruler."
*R̥buxšaya Ancient Greek: Means "king of the airspace." Composed of:[63]
*r̥bu-, a cognate of Sanskrit ऋभु (Ṛbhú), the name of a group of deities of the airspace.
*-xšaya, "ruler."
*Kolaxšaya Ancient Greek:

Latin: Colaxes

From an earlier form *Koδaxšaya after the evolution of Proto-Iranic /d/ to Proto-Scythian /δ/ to Scythian /l/.
Means "axe-wielding king," where the axe also has the meaning of "sceptre," as well as "blacksmith king," in the sense of "ruling king of the lower world." Composed of:[64]
*kola, from earlier *koδa, "axe."
*-xšaya, "ruler."

Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder's Natural History (AD 77–79) derives the name of the Caucasus from the Scythian kroy-khasis = ice-shining, white with snow (cf. Greek cryos = ice-cold).

Aristophanes

In the comedy works of Aristophanes, the dialects of various Greek people are accurately imitated. In his Thesmophoriazusae, a Scythian archer (a member of a police force in Athens) speaks broken Greek, consistently omitting the final -s (-ς) and -n (ν), using the lenis in place of the aspirate, and once using ks (ξ) in place of s (sigma); these may be used to elucidate the Scythian languages.[65]

Alanian

The Alanian language, as spoken by the Alans from about the 5th to the 11th centuries AD, formed a dialect directly descended from the earlier Scytho-Sarmatian languages, and forming in its turn the ancestor of the Ossetian language. Byzantine Greek authors recorded only a few fragments of this language.[66]

Unlike the Pontic Scythian language, Ossetian did not experience the evolution of the Proto-Scythian sound /d/ to /δ/ and then /l/, although the sound /d/ did evolve into /δ/ at the beginning of Ossetian words.[8]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Sogdic-Ossetic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/sogd1247. 
  2. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Saka-Wakhi". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/saka1303. 
  3. ↑ Lubotsky 2002, p. 190.
  4. ↑ Compare L. Zgusta, Die griechischen Personennamen griechischer Städte der nördlichen Schwarzmeerküste [The Greek personal names of the Greek cities of the northern Black Sea coast], 1955.
  5. ↑ Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 7 (3): 1–115. doi:10.11588/ejvs.2001.3.830. 
  6. ↑ Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, Reichert, 1989.[page needed]
  7. ↑ Novák 2013, p. 11.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Ivantchik 1999a, p. 156-158.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Novák 2013, p. 10.
  10. ↑ J.P.Mallory (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Dearborn. p. 310. ISBN 9781884964985. 
  11. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 124.
  12. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 123.
  13. ↑ Harmatta 1992, p. 412.
  14. ↑ Lincoln, Bruce (2014). "Once again 'the Scythian' myth of origins (Herodotus 4.5–10)". Nordlit 33 (33): 19–34. doi:10.7557/13.3188. 
  15. ↑ Hinz 1975, p. 40.
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 Schmitt 2003.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 Schmitt 2018a.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Schmitt 2011.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Schwartz & Manaster Ramer 2019, p. 359-360.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 93.
  21. ↑ Tokhtasyev 2005, p. 88.
  22. ↑ Ivantchik 1999b, p. 508-509: "Though Madyes himself is not mentioned in Akkadian texts, his father, the Scythian king Par-ta-tu-a, whose identification with Προτοθύης of Herodotus is certain."
  23. ↑ Bukharin 2011, p. 63.
  24. ↑ Kullanda & Raevskiy 2004, p. 94.
  25. ↑ Melikov 2016, p. 78-80.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Kullanda 2014, p. 81.
  27. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 273-274.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Bukharin 2013, p. 270-271.
  29. ↑ Alemany 2006, p. 33.
  30. ↑ Ivantchik 2005, p. 183.
  31. ↑ Ivantchik 2018.
  32. ↑ "Išpakaia [CHIEFTAIN OF THE SCYTHIANS (RN)"]. University of Pennsylvania. http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/riao/cbd/qpn/x00033830.html. 
  33. ↑ Ivantchik 2005, p. 188.
  34. ↑ Schmitt 2009, p. 93–94.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Schmitt 2018b.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Hinz 1975, p. 226.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Tokhtasyev 2005a, p. 68-84.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Tokhtasyev 2005b, p. 296.
  39. ↑ Szemerényi 1980, p. 20-21.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Witczak 1999, p. 52-53.
  41. ↑ M. Vasmer, Untersuchungen über die ältesten Wohnsitze der Slaven. Die Iranier in Südrußland, Leipzig 1923, 74.
  42. ↑ Kretschmer, Paul (1935). "Zum Balkan-Skythischen". Glotta 24 (1–2): 1–56 [7–56]. 
  43. ↑ Kullanda 2013, p. 39-41.
  44. ↑ Brunner, C. J. (1986). "ARANG". https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arang-river. "Middle Persian Arang/Arag renders Avestan Raŋhā, which is cognate with the Scythian name Rhâ (*Rahā) transmitted by Ptolemy" 
  45. ↑ Harmatta 1999, p. 129.
  46. ↑ "Vir – the Latin Dictionary". http://latindictionary.wikidot.com/noun:vir. 
  47. ↑ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9. 
  48. ↑ Gharib, B. (1995). Sogdian Dictionary, Sogdian-Persian-English. Tehran, Iran: Farhangan Publications. p. 376. ISBN 964-5558-06-9. 
  49. ↑ L. Zgusta, "Skythisch οἰόρπατα «ἀνδροκτόνοι»", Annali dell’Istituto Universario Orientale di Napoli 1 (1959) pp. 151–156.
  50. ↑ Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 15.
  51. ↑ V.I. Abaev, Osetinskij jazyk i fol’klor, Moscow / Leningrad 1949, vol. 1, 172, 176, 188.
  52. ↑ Hinge 2005, pp. 94–98
  53. ↑ J. Marquart, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte von Eran, Göttingen 1905, 90–92; Vasmer, Die Iranier in Südrußland, 1923, 12; H.H. Schaeder, Iranica. I: Das Auge des Königs, Berlin 1934, 16–19.
  54. ↑ W. Tomaschek, "Kritik der ältesten Nachrichten über den skythischen Norden", Sitzungsberichte der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 116 (1888), 715–780, here: 761; K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, Berlin 1893, vol. 3, 305–306; R. Grousset, L’empire des steppes, Paris 1941, 37 n. 3; I. Lebedensky, Les Scythes. La civilisation des steppes (VIIe-IIIe siècles av. J.-C.), Paris 2001, 93.
  55. ↑ Hinge 2005, pp. 89–94
  56. ↑ Cheung, Johnny (2007). Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. Leiden: Brill Publishers. pp. 378–379. ISBN 978-9-004-15496-4. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 Ustinova 1999, p. 67-128.
  58. ↑ Raevskiy 1993, p. 17-18.
  59. ↑ Tokhtasyev 2013.
  60. ↑ Ustinova 1999, p. 29-66.
  61. ↑ Herzfeld, Ernst (1947). Zoroaster and His World. 2. Princeton University Press. p. 516. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56772. 
  62. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 29-31.
  63. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 31-32.
  64. ↑ Bukharin 2013, p. 48-52.
  65. ↑ Donaldson, John William (1844) (in en). Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Philological Study of the Latin Language. J. and J. J. Deighton. p. 32. https://archive.org/details/varronianusacri00donagoog. 
  66. ↑ Ladislav Zgusta, "The old Ossetian Inscription from the River Zelenčuk" (Veröffentlichungen der Iranischen Kommission = Sitzungsberichte der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philosophisch-historische Klasse 486) Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1987. ISBN:3-7001-0994-6 in Kim, op.cit., 54.

Bibliography



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