Social:Ukrainization

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Short description: Efforts to promote the Ukrainian language and culture in Ukraine
Not to be confused with Derussification in Ukraine.

Template:History of UkraineUkrainization or Ukrainisation (Ukrainian: Українізація uk) is a policy or practice of increasing the usage and facilitating the development of the Ukrainian language and promoting other elements of Ukrainian culture in various spheres of public life such as education, publishing, government, and religion. The term is also used to describe a process by which non-Ukrainians or Russian-speaking Ukrainians are assimilated to Ukrainian culture and language, either by individual choices or forcibly, as a result of social processes or policies. == Background == From the second half of the 15th century through the 16th century, when present-day Ukraine and Belarus were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Renaissance had a major impact on shifting culture, art and literature away from Byzantine Christian theocentrism as expressed in Church Slavonic, towards humanist anthropocentrism, which in writing was increasingly expressed by taking the vernacular language of the common people as the basis of texts.[1] New literary genres developed that were closer to secular topics, such as poetry, polemical literature, and scientific literature. Medieval Church Slavonic works were translated into what became known as Ruthenian, Chancery Slavonic, or Old Ukrainian.[2] The vernacular Ruthenian dilove movlennya ('business speech') of the 16th century would spread to most other domains of everyday communication in the 17th century, with an influx of words, expressions and style from Polish and other European languages. During this period, the usage of Church Slavonic became more restricted to the affairs of religion, the church, hagiography, and some forms of art and science.[3] Ruthenian became a standard language, later splitting into modern Ukrainian and Belarusian.[4]

Russian Empire

An ethnolinguistic map showing subdivisions of the Russian Empire using data obtained from the 1897 census. The predominantly Ukrainian-speaking area is marked in yellow.

The Russification of Ukraine occurred when Ukrainian lands were a part of the Russian Empire. Laws were introduced to eliminate the use of the Ukrainian language from state institutions, schools, and other spheres of social activity of people, which limited the usefulness of the language and created unfavorable conditions for its development.

1917–1923: times after the Russian Revolution

Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the dissolution of the Russian Empire, the Ukrainians intensified their struggle for an independent state. A nascent Ukrainian state emerged from the chaos of war but its survival was not ensured.[5]

The Central Rada (the revolutionary Ukrainian parliament established after the All-Ukrainian National Congress in April 1917) was overthrown in a German-backed coup in April 29, 1918, and a Second Hetmanate led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi was established. Even though the new government lacked stability and Skoropadsky spoke Russian rather than Ukrainian, the Hetmanate established a Ukrainian cultural and education program, printed millions of Ukrainian-language textbooks, and established Ukrainian schools, two universities, and a Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.[6] The Academy established a Committee on Orthography and Terminology, which initiated a scholarly and methodological research program into Ukrainian terminology.[7][better source needed]

The Hetmanate's rule ended with the German evacuation and was replaced by the Directorate government of Symon Petlura in the wake of Ukraine's defeat against the Polish during the Polish–Ukrainian war. Ukraine was embroiled in war, with factions including Nestor Makhno's anarcho-communist Insurgent Army besides the Polish backed Petlura's government. Following the Treaty of Warsaw (1920),Petliura allied with the Second Polish Republic against the Red Army. It was at various times also the scene of fighting of White and Green armies.

1923–1931: early years of Soviet Ukraine

The 1921 Soviet recruitment to the Military Education poster with the Ukrainization theme. The text reads: "Son! Enroll in the School of Red Commanders (uk), and the defence of Soviet Ukraine will be ensured." The poster uses traditional Ukrainian imagery with Ukrainian-language text to reach a wider appeal. The School of Red Commanders in Kharkiv was organized to promote the careers of the Ukrainian national cadre in the army.[8]

At first, the Bolshevik authorities were skeptical about the revival and independence of the non-Russian nations (e.g. Finland, Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine etc.) after the collapse of the Russian Empire. However, after they noticed that the indigenous peoples of the former Russian Empire had a rather negative view of becoming a part of a new Russian state, the Soviet government started an indigenization policy, which had an influence on all non-Russian peoples of the USSR.[9] The purpose of this policy was to expand the communist party network on the non-Russian lands with the involvement of the indigenous population. As a result, this also caused a short period of Ukrainization, until a reversal happened in the early 1930s.[10]


The All-Ukrainian Sovnarkom's decree "On implementation of the Ukrainization of the educational and cultural institutions" (July 27, 1923) is considered to be the onset of the Ukrainization program. The (August 1) decree that followed shortly "On implementation of the equal rights of the languages and facilitation of the Ukrainian language" mandated the implementation of Ukrainian language to all levels of state institutions. Initially, the program was met with resistance by some Ukrainian Communists, largely because non-Ukrainians prevailed numerically in the party at the time. The resistance was finally overcome in 1925 through changes in the party leadership under the pressure of Ukrainian representatives in the party. In April 1925 the party Central Committee adopted the resolution on Ukrainization proclaiming its aim as "solidifying the union of the peasantry with the working class" and boosting the overall support of the Soviet system among Ukrainians. A joint resolution aimed at "complete Ukrainization of the Soviet apparatus" as well as the party and trade unions was adopted on April 30, 1925. The Ukrainian Commissariat of Education (Narkomos) was charged with overseeing the implementation of the Ukrainization policies. The two figures, therefore, most identified with the policy are Alexander Shumsky, the Commissar for Education between 1923 and 1927, and Mykola Skrypnyk, who replaced Shumsky in 1927.{{citation needed|date=October 2

A "Ukrainization certificate" issued in Kyiv Oblast in 1928, confirming that its owner passed a Ukrainian language exam and could be employed by authorities

The Soviet-backed education system dramatically raised the literacy of the Ukrainophone rural population. By 1929 over 97% of high school students in the republic were obtaining their education in Ukrainian[11] and illiteracy dropped from 47% (1926) to 8% in 1934.[12]

Simultaneously, the newly literate ethnic Ukrainians migrated to the cities, which became rapidly largely Ukrainianized — in both population and education. Between 1923 and 1933 the Ukrainian proportion of the population of Kharkiv, at the time the capital of Soviet Ukraine, increased from 38% to 50%. Similar increases occurred in other cities, from 27.1% to 42.1% in Kyiv, from 16% to 48% in Dnipropetrovsk, from 16% to 48% in Odesa, and from 7% to 31% in Luhansk.[12]

Similarly expansive was an increase in Ukrainian language publishing and the overall flourishing of Ukrainian cultural life. As of 1931 out of 88 theatres in Ukraine, 66 were Ukrainian, 12 were Jewish (Yiddish) and 9 were Russian. The number of Ukrainian newspapers, which almost did not exist in 1922, had reached 373 out of 426, while only 3 all-republican large newspapers remained Russian. Of 118 magazines, 89 were Ukrainian. Ukrainization of book-publishing reached 83%.[12]


Year Communist Party members
and candidates to membership		 Ukrainians Russians Others
1922 54,818 23.3% 53.6% 23.3%
1924 57,016 33.3% 45.1% 14.0%
1925 101,852 36.9% 43.4% 19.7%
1927 168,087 51.9% 30.0% 18.1%
1930 270,698 52.9% 29.3% 17.8%
1933 468,793 60.0% 23.0% 17.0%


The attempted Ukrainization of the armed forces, Red Army formations serving in Ukraine and abroad, was less successful although moderate progress was attained. The Schools of Red Commanders (Shkola Chervonyh Starshyn) was organized in Kharkiv to promote the careers of the Ukrainian national cadre in the army (see picture). The Ukrainian newspaper of the Ukrainian Military District "Chervona Armiya" was published until the mid-1930s.[8] The efforts were made to introduce and expand Ukrainian terminology and communication in the Ukrainian Red Army units.[7] The policies even reached the army units in which Ukrainians served in other Soviet regions. For instance the Soviet Pacific Fleet included a Ukrainian department overseen by Semyon Rudniev.[13]


Ukrainization even reached those regions of southern Russian SFSR, particularly the areas by the Don and Kuban rivers, where mixed population showed strong Ukrainian influences in the local dialect. Ukrainian language teachers, just graduated from expanded institutions of higher education in Soviet Ukraine, were dispatched to these regions to staff newly opened Ukrainian schools or to teach Ukrainian as a second language in Russian schools. A string of local Ukrainian-language publications was started and departments of Ukrainian studies were opened in colleges. Overall, these policies were implemented in thirty-five administrative districts in southern Russia.[14]

Early 1930s: reversal of Ukrainization policies

In the regions of southern Russian SFSR (North Caucasus and eastern part of Sloboda Ukraine included into RSFSR) Ukrainization was effectively outlawed in 1932.[15] Specifically, the December 14, 1932 decree "On Grain Collection in Ukraine, North Caucasus and the Western Oblasts" by the VKP(b) Central Committee and USSR Sovnarkom stated that Ukrainization in certain areas was carried out formally, in a "non-Bolshevik" way, which provided the "bourgeois-nationalist elements" with a legal cover for organizing their anti-Soviet resistance. In order to stop this, the decree ordered in these areas, among other things, to switch to Russian all newspapers and magazines, and all Soviet and cooperative paperwork. By the autumn of 1932 (beginning of a school year), all schools were ordered to switch to Russian. In addition the decree ordered a massive population swap: all "disloyal" population from a major Cossack settlement, stanitsa Poltavskaya was banished to Northern Russia, with their property given to loyal kolkhozniks moved from poorer areas of Russia.[16] This forced end to Ukrainization in southern RSFSR had led to a massive decline of reported Ukrainians in these regions in the 1937 Soviet Census compared to the 1926 First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union.[15]

1930s to mid-1980

The Communist Party of Ukraine, under the guidance of state officials like Lazar Kaganovich, Stanisław Kosior, and Pavel Postyshev, boasted in early 1934 of the elimination of "counter-revolutionaries, nationalists, spies and class enemies".

In 1935–36, 83% of all school children in the Ukrainian SSR were taught in Ukrainian even though Ukrainians made up about 80% of the population.[17] In 1936 from 1830 newspapers 1402 were in Ukrainian, as were 177 magazines, in 1936 69,104 thousand Ukrainian books were printed.[18]

In the following 50 years,Ukrainian had mixed views from the Soviet Government. The mid-1960s were characterized by moderate Ukrainization efforts in governmental affairs as well as the resurgence of the usage of Ukrainian in education, publishing and culture.[19]

Post-1991: independent Ukraine

According to a resolution by the parliament of Ukraine on 28 February 1989 "Regarding the state-nature and official status of the Ukrainian language in institutions and organizations" we speak Ukrainian here: an announcement in a Lviv hospital about the use of the Ukrainian language

On 28 October 1989, the Supreme Soviet of Ukraine changed the Constitution and adopted the "Law of Languages".[20] The Ukrainian language was declared the only official language, while the other languages spoken in Ukraine were guaranteed constitutional protection. The government was obliged to create the conditions required for the development and use of Ukrainian language as well as languages of other ethnic groups, including Russian. Usage of other languages, along with Ukrainian, was allowed in local institutions located in places of residence of the majority of citizens of the corresponding ethnicities.[clarification needed] Citizens were guaranteed the right to use their native or any other languages and were entitled to address various institutions and organizations in Ukrainian, in Russian, or in another language of their work, or in a language acceptable to the parties. After the Ukrainian accession of independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union the law, with some minor amendments, remained in force in the independent Ukrainian state. Adopted in 1996, the new Constitution of Ukraine confirmed the official state status of the Ukrainian language, and guaranteed the free development, use, and protection of Russian and other languages of national minorities of Ukraine.[21]

After the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine in 1991, the Ukrainian government began following a policy of Ukrainization,[22] to increase the use of Ukrainian while discouraging Russian, which has been gradually phased out from the country's education system,[23] government,[24] and national TV, radio programs, and films. Until 2017, the "On Education" law granted Ukrainian families the right to choose their native language for schools and studies.[25][26] It was revised to make the Ukrainian language the primary language used by children in all schools, except for those belonging to ethnic minorities.[26][27]

Language issues are still used by politicians to generate controversy. On May 20, 2008, Donetsk City Council passed a resolution limiting the expansion of Ukrainian-language education in the city. The following day the city prosecutor declared the decision illegal and the mayor suspended it, and the council reversed itself two days later.[28]

According to a March 2010 survey, forced Ukrainization and Russian language suppression are among the least troubling problems for Ukrainian citizens, concerning only 4.8% of population.[29]

Ukrainization in western Ukraine

In the West Ukrainian People's Republic, immediately after taking control of towns in Eastern Galicia, Ukrainian authorities ordered the removal of Polish inscriptions in places were Poles lived and their replacement with Ukrainian ones, while also closing Polish schools.[30] During the aftermath of World War II, the process of Ukrainization in the Ukrainian SSR was preceded by the expulsion of some ethnic minorities[31][32] and appropriation of their cultural heritage.[33][34] The term Ukrainization is also used in the context of these acts.

During World War II Operation Zamość took place,[35][36] which was an ethnic cleansing carried out by Nazis, with the help of their collaborators (including the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police),[37] between November 1942 and March 1943 in the Zamość region of occupied Poland. Ukraineraktion was a connected operation that occurred from January to March 1943. It involved the forced resettlement of ethnic Ukrainians (often involuntarily) into villages from which Poles had previously been expelled as a "protective belt" separating Poles from German colonizers. [38][39] In addition to creating a zone intended to protect the Nazi German population from retaliatory actions by Polish partisans (as Operation Zamosc was seen as a great tragedy and a war crime by the Polish population) the operation also aimed to antagonize Poles with Ukrainians. It indeed sparked hate between these two groups in the area, as local Poles began to view Ukrainians as colonizers and as collaborators with the Nazis.

Educational system

Percentage of secondary school students in Ukraine by the primary language of instruction[40]
Year Ukrainian Russian
1991 45% 54%
1996 60% 39.2%
1997 62.7% 36.5%
1998 65% 34.4%
1999 67.5% 31.8%
2000 70.3% 28.9%
2001 72.5% 26.6%
2002 73.8% 25.3%
2003–2004 75.1% 23.9%

The government of independent Ukraine implemented policies to broaden the use of Ukrainian and mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. The most significant was the government's concerted effort to implement Ukrainian, as the only official state language in the country, into the state educational system. Despite the Constitution, the Law on Education (grants Ukrainian families (parents and their children) a right to choose their native language for schools and studies[25]) as well as the Law of Languages (a guarantee for the protection of all languages in Ukraine) the education system gradually reshaped from a system that was only partly Ukrainian to the one that is overwhelmingly so. The Russian language is still studied as a required course in all secondary schools, including those with Ukrainian as the primary language of instructions.[41] The number of secondary school students who received their primary education in Ukrainian grew from 47.9% in 1990–1991[42] (the last school year before Ukrainian independence) to 67.4% in 1999[43] and to 75.1% by 2003–2004 (see table). Ukrainization has achieved even greater gains in higher education institutions where as of 1990–1991 only 7% of students were being taught primarily in Ukrainian.[42] By 2003–2004 the percentage of college and technicum students studying in Ukrainian reached 87.7% and for the students of the university-level institutions this number reached 80.1% (see table).

The extent of educational institutions' Ukrainization varies in the different regions of Ukraine. In the 16 western oblasts (provinces) of Ukraine there are 26 Russian language schools out of 12,907[40] and in Kyiv six out of 452 schools use Russian as their primary language of instruction,[44] (according to a 2006 survey,[45] Ukrainian is used at home by 23% of Kyivans, as 52% use Russian and 24% switch between both). In the Donets Basin region the percentage of students receiving education in Russian roughly corresponds to the percentage of population who considers Russian as their native language and in Crimea the overwhelming majority of secondary schools students are taught in Russian. The distribution is similar in the institutes of the higher education while the latter are somewhat more Ukrainianized.

Percentage students in higher education by the primary language of instruction[40]
Institutions of lower accreditation
levels (colleges and technicums) 		University level institutions
of the highest accreditation levels
Year Ukrainian Russian Ukrainian Russian
2000–2001 78% 22% 73.4% 26.5%
2001–2002 80% 20% 76.3% 23.6%
2002–2003 81.8% 18.2% 77.8% 22.1%
2003–2004 83.4% 16.6% 78.7% 21.2%
2004–2005 87.7% 12.3% 80.1% 19.9%

The increase of the share of secondary school students obtaining education in Ukrainian (from 47.9% to 67%) over the first decade of the Ukrainian independence roughly corresponded to the share of native Ukrainian speakers - 67.5%.[46] Schools continue to be transferred to the Ukrainian language up to this day. At the end of the 1990s, about 50% of professional school students, 62% of college students and 67% of university students (cf. 7% in 1991) studied in Ukrainian[11][47] and in the following five years the number increased even further (see table).

In some cases, the changing of the language of instruction in institutions, led to the charges of assimilation, raised mostly by the Russian-speaking population. Despite this, the transition was gradual and lacked many controversies that surrounded the de-Russification in several of the other former Soviet Republics, its perception within Ukraine remained mixed.[48]

2017 law "On Education"

Main article: Social:Language policy in Ukraine

On September 25, 2017, a new law on education was signed by the President (draft approved by the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's national parliament) on September 5, 2017) which said that the Ukrainian language is the language of education at all levels except for subjects that are allowed to be taught in two or more languages, namely English or one of the other official languages of the European Union.

The law was condemned by PACE that called it "a major impediment to the teaching of national minorities".[49] The law also faced criticism from officials in Hungary, Romania and Russia.[50] (Hungarian and Romanian are official languages of the European Union, Russian is not.[51][52]) Ukrainian officials stressed that the new law complies fully with European norms on minority rights.[53] The law does state that "Persons belonging to indigenous peoples of Ukraine are guaranteed the right to study in public facilities of preschool and primary education in the language of instruction of the respective indigenous people, along with the state language of instruction" in separate classes or groups.[54] PACE describes this as a significant curtailing of the rights of indigenous peoples carried out without consultations with their representatives.[49] On 27 June 2018 Ukrainian foreign minister Pavlo Klimkin stated that following the recommendation of the Venice Commission the language provision of the (September 2017) law on education will not apply to private schools and that every public school for national minorities "will have broad powers to independently determine which classes will be taught in Ukrainian or their native language."[55][56]

In January 2020 the law was changed and made it legal to teach "one or more disciplines" in "two or more languages – in the official state language, in English, in another official languages of the European Union".[57] All not state funded schools were made free to choose their own language of instruction.[57]

According to the 2020 law until the fifth year of education all lessons can be completely thought in the minority language without mandatory teaching of subjects in Ukrainian.[57] In the fifth year not less than 20% of the lessons must be taught in Ukrainian.[57] Then every year the volume of teaching in the state language (Ukrainian) should increase, reaching 40% in the ninth grade.[57] In the twelfth and final year at least 60% of education should be taught in Ukrainian.[57]

The 2017 language education law stipulated a 3-year transitional period to come in full effect.[26][54] In February 2018, this period was extended until 2023.[58] In June 2023 this period was again extended to September 2024.[59]

Since the introduction of the 2017 language law Hungary–Ukraine relations have greatly deteriorated over the issue of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine.[60] Hungary is since 2017 blocking Ukraine's attempt to integrate within the EU and NATO to help the Hungarian minority in Ukraine.[61]

2023 changes to national minorities' language rights

On 8 December 2022, the Ukrainian parliament passed a bill that amend some laws on the rights of national minorities in light of the Council of Europe’s expert assessment and in order to meet one of the European Commission’s criteria for the opening of EU membership negotiations.[62] These changes gave the right to privately-owned institutions of higher education to have the right to freely choose the language of study if it is an official language of the European Union, while ensuring that persons studying at such institutions study the state language Ukrainian as a separate academic discipline; it guaranteed that national minorities whose language is an official languages of the European Union the right to use the language of the corresponding national minority in the educational process along with the state language and it ensured that pupils who had begun their general secondary education before 1 September 2018 in the language of the corresponding national minority, will have the right to continue to receive such education until the completion of their full secondary education in accordance with the rules that applied before the Law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" came into force on 16 July 2019.[62][63]

Mass media

See also: Social:Russian book ban in Ukraine

Since 2004 the Ukrainian government has enacted restrictions on Russian-language television and radio programs.[64] Russian-language programs are required to include a Ukrainian translation or subtitles,[64] and local radio and television stations have the right to broadcast in Russian only if they can prove they have a Russian audience.[64] There was some opposition against this ban.[64] Today the ban is in full effect, but Russian movies are mostly subtitled in cinemas and on Ukrainian television. Non-Russian and non-Ukrainian movies which used to be dubbed in Russian may now only be dubbed, post-synchronized or subtitled in Ukrainian.[65][66] Ukrainian authorities defended the ban, stating that it aimed to develop a home-grown Ukrainian distribution industry and to give Ukrainian distributors "muscle" in negotiating their own deals to buy foreign films.[67] Russian distributors control around 90% of foreign films screened in Ukraine and tend to supply Russian-language dubbed or subtitled copies that are part of wider packages distributed throughout Russia and the former Soviet territories. Andriy Khalpakhchi, director the Ukrainian Cinema Foundation, claims "Some European sellers at Berlin's film market are reporting that Russian buyers are already threatening not to buy films if they sell directly to Ukraine without using Russian distribution channels."[67] Despite earlier fears that there would be problems due to the introduction of compulsory Ukrainian dubbing of films, the number of visitors to Ukrainian cinemas soared by 40% in Q1 of the year 2009 compared to the same period of the previous year.[68]

Several Russian TV channels have not been allowed to broadcast in Ukraine since November 1, 2008, according to Ukraine's National Council on Television and Radio Broadcasting mainly because of the advertising aired by the channels. The Ukrainian distributors of television channels were ordered to bring the broadcasts in line with Ukrainian laws. Channel One and Ren TV have since been granted temporary permission to broadcast, while a separate version of RTR Planeta was started specially for Ukrainian TV viewers in October 2009.[69][70]

On 13 May 2010, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov claimed that in Ukraine "the discriminatory, politically-motivated, ideology-tinged and anti-Russian decisions that were being made when Yuschenko was President have been lifted".[71]

On 23 May 2017, Ukrainian parliament approved the law proposed in November 2016 that demands national, regional, satellite, and multi-channel TV and radio networks to broadcast at least 75% of their content (summarized on weekly basis separately in time intervals 7 am – 6 pm and 6 pm – 10 pm) in Ukrainian starting from 13 October 2017. 50% is required from local networks, and 75% of news programs is required in Ukrainian for all networks. Films and broadcasts which are not products of these networks and produced after 1991 must be broadcast exclusively in Ukrainian. Reasonable exceptions are provided for inclusion of non-Ukrainian language into otherwise Ukrainian-language broadcasts. The National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine may permit exceptions to this law for broadcasts which serve elimination of threats to national security.[72] At the time the only two national Ukrainian TV channels who did not already broadcast 75% of their content in Ukrainian were "Inter" and "Ukraine".[73] Also because of this May 2017 approved law, since 8 November 2018 Ukrainian radio stations must broadcast no less than 35% of songs in Ukrainian or if it plays 60% of its songs in the official languages of the European Union then 25%.[74][75][76]

Politics

Pro-Russian public association activists protest against Ukrainization of a Russian public school in Chuhuiv (Kharkiv Oblast, 2005). Banners are written in Russian language.

In 2004 an election promise by Viktor Yanukovych (leader of the Party of Regions) to adopt Russian as the second official language might also have increased the turnout of his base, but it was rebutted during the campaign by his opponent (Viktor Yushchenko), who pointed out that Yanukovych could have already taken steps towards this change while he was a Prime Minister of Ukraine if this had really been his priority. During his campaign Yushchenko emphasized that his being painted as a proponent of the closure of Russian schools frequently made by his opponents is entirely baseless and stated his view that the issue of school language, as well as the churches, should be left to local communities.[77] Nevertheless, during Yuchshenko's presidency the transfer of educational institutions from Russian to Ukrainian continued.[78][79][80]

Map showing the results of the Party of Regions at the 2007 election shows that its voters live mainly in regions where the Russian language is dominant.

In the 2006 parliamentary election the status of the Russian language in Ukraine was brought up again by the opposition parties. The leading opposition party, Party of Regions, promised to introduce two official languages, Russian and Ukrainian, on the national and regional levels.[81] On the national level such changes require modifying Article 10 of the Constitution of Ukraine, which the party hopes to achieve.[82] Before the election in Kharkiv, and following the election in the other south-eastern regions such as Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Luhansk, Mykolaiv, and the Crimea, the newly elected local councils, won by the Party of Regions (and minor supporting parties), declared Russian as a regional language, citing the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, ratified by Ukraine in 2003.[83] In Dnipropetrovsk, the court has found the order of the Dnipropetrovsk City Council on introducing Russian as a regional language unlawful,[84] but the legal battle on the local status of the Russian language remains to be resolved.[85]

In the wake of the 2006 Parliamentary crisis in Ukraine that fractured the governing coalition and returned Yanukovych to the Prime Ministership, the "Universal of National Unity" signed by President Yushchenko as well as the leaders of several of the most influential political parties declared that Ukrainian would remain the official state language in Ukraine. However, within a week after signing the Universal, Yanukovych, then approved as Prime Minister of Ukraine, stated at a press conference in Sochi (Russia) that the implementation of Russian as a second state language remains the goal of his party even though he does not see it achieved in the immediate future because such a change, which would require amending the Constitution, would not collect the required majority (two-thirds) in the Parliament of Ukraine given the current political situation.[86]

During the electoral campaign for the 2010 Ukrainian presidential election Yanukovych at first stated that if he would be elected President he then will do everything in order to make Russian the second state language in Ukraine,[87] but in an interview with Kommersant later during the campaign he stated that the status of Russian in Ukraine "is too politicized" and said that if elected president in 2010 he would "have a real opportunity to adopt a law on languages, which implements the requirements of the European Charter of regional languages". He implied this law would need 226 votes in the Ukrainian parliament (50% of the votes instead of the 75% of the votes needed to change the constitution of Ukraine).[88] After his early 2010 election as President Yanukovych stated (on March 9, 2010) "Ukraine will continue to promote the Ukrainian language as its only state language".[89]

Law

Historical and political calendar

President Petro Poroshenko claimed to be carrying out the "Ukrainianization of the historical and political calendar - the replacement of the Soviet-Russian imposed upon us."[90][91] This has led to the moving of military holidays to new dates and the creation of the Defenders of Ukraine Day.[91]

The 2017 abolition of May 2 as public holiday (as it was in the Soviet era) and instead (since 2017) making Western Christianity's Christmas, celebrated 25 December, a new Ukrainian public holiday was also described as moving away from "Moscow's calendar and Russian imperial standards" (by Oleksandr Turchynov, the Secretary of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine in 2017).[92][93] (May 1's International Workers' Day remained a Ukrainian public holiday, although it was renamed (also in 2017) from "Day of International Solidarity of Workers" to "Labor Day".[93])

See also

  • Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression
  • Derussianization
    • Demolition of monuments to Alexander Pushkin in Ukraine
    • Demolition of monuments to Vladimir Lenin in Ukraine
    • Russification and Derussification in Ukraine
  • Decommunization
    • Decommunization in Russia
    • Decommunization in Ukraine
      • List of communist monuments in Ukraine
      • List of Ukrainian toponyms that were changed as part of decommunization in 2016
      • Ukrainian decommunization laws
  • Language policy in Ukraine
    • Reversal of Ukrainization policies in Soviet Ukraine
  • Lustration in Ukraine
  • People's Friendship Arch, colloquial name "Yarmo" (Yoke)[94][95]
  • Russians in Ukraine
    • Russian language in Ukraine
  • Ukrainian nationalism
    • Law of Ukraine "On supporting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the State language"
    • Ukrainian independence awakening
    • Ukrainophilia
  • Volhynian Genocide
  • 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine
  • Accession of Ukraine to the European Union
  • Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
  • Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)
  • Geopolitics of Russia
  • International recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic
  • Krasovsky case
  • Media portrayal of the Russo-Ukrainian War
  • Russian imperialism
  • Russian irredentism
  • Russian nationalism
  • Ukraine–NATO relations
  • War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
    • Allegations of genocide of Ukrainians in the Russo-Ukrainian War
    • Bucha massacre
    • Child abductions in the Russo-Ukrainian War

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Volodymyr Kubiyovych; Zenon Kuzelia, Енциклопедія українознавства (Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies), 3-volumes, Kyiv, 1994, ISBN 5-7702-0554-7
  • George O. Liber, Soviet nationality policy, urban growth, and identity change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923-1934, Cambridge: CUP, 1992, ISBN 0-521-41391-5
  • James E. Mace, Communism and the Dilemmas of National Liberation. National Communism in Soviet Ukraine 1918-1933, Cambridge, Mass.: HURI Harvard, 1983, ISBN 0-916458-09-1
  • Terry D. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire. Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8677-7
  • Закон про мови (Law on languages), 1989 (in Ukrainian), English translation.
  • Constitution of Ukraine.
  • Ukrainian language - the third official?, Ukrayinska Pravda, November 28, 2005
  • Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530545-6. 
  • UKRAINE: Russian Language Toned Down, Inter Press Service, August 11, 2008
  • Myroslav Shkandrij. The Ukrainian reading public in the 1920s: real, implied, and ideal Canadian Slavonic Papers 58, no.2 (2016)

References

  1. ↑ Peredriyenko 2001, p. 18.
  2. ↑ Peredriyenko 2001, pp. 18–19.
  3. ↑ Peredriyenko 2001, p. 19.
  4. ↑ Peredriyenko 2001, pp. 21–22.
  5. ↑ "Central Rada". Encyclopedia of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press. 1984. https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages\C\E\CentralRada.htm. 
  6. ↑ Defiant Russia: 1919: Chaos in Ukraine. Avalanche Press. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Stephen D. Olynyk, "ANALYSIS: The status of Ukrainian military terminology ", The Ukrainian Weekly, February 16, 1997
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Ukrainization, although with less success, was implemented in the Army (School of Red Commanders in Kharkiv, newspaper of the Ukrainian Military District "Chervona Armiya" published until mid-1930s, etc.)". (Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies) cited above
  9. ↑ "Українізація. Українська мова. Енциклопедія.". http://litopys.org.ua/ukrmova/um120.htm. 
  10. ↑ В. М. Даниленко, Я. В. Верменич, П. М. Бондарчук, Л. В. Гриневич, О. О. Ковальчук, В. В. Масненко, В. М. Чумак. ISBN 966-02-2897-X. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Vasyl Ivanyshyn, Yaroslav Radevych-Vynnyts'kyi, Mova i Natsiya , Drohobych, Vidrodzhennya, 1994, ISBN 5-7707-5898-8
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Volodymyr Kubiyovych; Zenon Kuzelia, Енциклопедія українознавства (Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies), 3-volumes, Kyiv, 1994, ISBN 5-7702-0554-7
  13. ↑ "Rudnev Semen Vasilyevich". Library of the Far East State University. http://lib.dvgu.ru/maintext/menu/vist/Viktoriya/Rudnev.htm. 
  14. ↑ Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist."The campaign was implemented in 35 raions of the Russian Republic [Stavropol, Krasnodar (Kuban), Republic of Karachaev-Cherkessiya] most of which still exist to this day."Oleksandr Tereshchenko (December 2004). "Ukrainian renaissance in the south of Russia". http://vesna.org.ua/txt/sxid/conference.doc. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Unknown Eastern Ukraine, The Ukrainian Week (14 March 2012)
  16. ↑ Постановление ЦК ВКП(б) и СНК СССР «О хлебозаготовках на Украине, Северном Кавказе и в Западной области». 14 декабря 1932 г. (December 14, 1932 decree "On Grain Collection in Ukraine, North Caucasus and the Western Oblast"); Russian archive (RGASPI) entry: РГАСПИ. Ф. 17. Оп. 3. Д. 2025. Л. 42—42 об.
  17. ↑ Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment
  18. ↑ "Soviet Ukraine for 20 years" p.102 Ukrainian SRR Academy of Science 1938 Kiev, also same data in Statistical Compendium 1936
  19. ↑ "Shelest came to power on the wave of post-war 'Ukrainization' of the party and state apparatus of the Ukrainian SSR and the rise of the role of Ukrainian party elite on the Soviet leadership. ... On the background of the general policies of Russification and Sovietization significant were his declarations aimed at the protection of the Ukrainian language in school education, the printed press, magazines and books. He defended several representatives of Ukrainian culture from the accusations of Ukrainian nationalism."
    Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies) cited above
  20. ↑ See highlights in English
  21. ↑ According to the Article 10 of the Constitution: "The state language of Ukraine is the Ukrainian language. The State ensures the comprehensive development and functioning of the Ukrainian language in all spheres of social life throughout the entire territory of Ukraine. In Ukraine, the free development, use and protection of Russian, and other languages of national minorities of Ukraine, is guaranteed."
  22. ↑ "Світова преса про вибори в Україні-2004". Архіви України. https://www.archives.gov.ua/Sections/Revolution_2004/UKL/photos.php?UKL302. 
  23. ↑ Volodymyr Malynkovych, Ukrainian perspective, Politicheskiy Klass, January, 2006. "Людей фактически лишают права получать образование и реализовывать свой потенциал на русском языке, родном для каждого третьего украинца, для большинства жителей Левобережья. В Центральной и Западной Украине практически не осталось русских школ. В 16 областях из 13000 школ только 26 русские (0,2%). Даже в Киеве русских школ почти не осталось - 6 из 452. Еще хуже ситуация с вузами - в 19 областях нет ни одного вуза с преподаванием на русском языке. В украинских же школах русская литература включена в курс зарубежной литературы, и Гоголя дети должны читать в переводе на украинский. По сути, только в Донбассе и в Крыму сохраняется полноценное русское образование." [In practice, they deprive people of the right to receive their education and to realize their potential in the Russian language, which is the native tongue of every third Ukrainian, and the native tongue for the majority of the inhabitants of Left-Bank Ukraine. In Central and Western Ukraine practically no Russian schools remain. In 16 oblasts [of the 24 Ukrainian oblasts], out of 13,000 schools only 26 are Russian (0.2%). Even in Kyiv almost no Russian schools remain: 6 out of the 452. The situation with tertiary education is even worse: in 19 oblasts there is not a single tertiary institution with instruction carried out in the Russian language. And in Ukrainian schools Russian literature is included in the syllabus for foreign literature, and children must read Gogol in Ukrainian translation. In fact, only in the Donbas and in the Crimea is a proper Russian education preserved.]
  24. ↑ "Constitutional court forbad a socialist to report in foreign language" (in ru). Korrespondent. http://www.korrespondent.net/main/180954. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Ukraine/ Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe, 10th edition , Council of Europe (2009)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 New education law becomes effective in Ukraine
  27. ↑ Beyond the scandal: what is Ukraine’s new education law really about?
  28. ↑ "Donetsk City Council Cancels Resolution Restricting Use Of Ukrainian Language In Educational Establishments". Ukrainian News Agency. May 26, 2008. http://www.ukranews.com/eng/article/125348.html. 
  29. ↑ "Українізація та мовне питання турбують українців найменше - опитування | Українська правда _Життя". http://life.pravda.com.ua/problem/4bc31444820e5/. 
  30. ↑ Zamorski, Jan (1919). "Mowy Sejmowe. Nr 7. O okrucieństwach hajdamackich". Magazyn 253, 4. Kujawsko-Pomorska Biblioteka Cyfrowa. https://kpbc.umk.pl/Content/185245/PDF/Magazyn_253_04_HD_008.pdf. 
  31. ↑ Norman Davies, God's Playground, a History of Poland, Columbia University Press, 1982, ISBN 0231053525, p.558
  32. ↑ Pavel Polian (2004-01-01). Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR. Central European University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-963-9241-68-8. 
  33. ↑ Tarik Cyril Amar, "A Murder in Lwów. The End of a Multi-Ethnic City, the Making of a Soviet-Ukrainian Lviv, and the Fate of a Model Borderland City", "Nowa Ukraina", vol. 1-2/2007, p. 107-121
  34. ↑ Patricia Kennedy Grimsted. Trophies of war and empire: the archival heritage of Ukraine, World War II, and the international politics of restitution. 2001. Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. p. 163.
  35. ↑ Rebentisch, Jost (2008) (in de) (PDF). Operation Himmlerstadt. Überleben. https://web.archive.org/web/20200102000000/https://www.example.com/operation_himmlerstadt.pdf. 
  36. ↑ Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1998). Poland's Holocaust. McFarland. pp. 299. ISBN 0786403713. 
  37. ↑ Jaczyńska, Agnieszka (2012). Aktion Zamość (Report). OBEP IPN, Lublin: Institute of National Remembrance. pp. 30–35. https://web.archive.org/web/20150528000000/URL_TO_PDF. 
  38. ↑ Housden, Martyn (2003). Hans Frank: Lebensraum and the Holocaust. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 188. ISBN 978-0-230-50309-0. 
  39. ↑ Ahonen, Pertti; Kochanowski, Jerzy; Corni, Gustavo (2008). People on the Move: Forced Population Movements in Europe in the Second World War and its Aftermath. Routledge. pp. 39. ISBN 978-1-845-20824-0. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 The data were prepared by the International Institute of Humanitarian and Political Studies (Russia) based on the statistical data published by the Ministry of Science and Education of Ukraine, 2001–2004.
  41. ↑ "Співпраця України і Російської Федерації у сфері освіти і науки - Острів знань". http://ostriv.in.ua/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1519&Itemid=1335&ft=1. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 See Ivanyshyn, cited above
  43. ↑ "the number of Ukrainian secondary schools has increased to 15,900, or 75% of their total number. In all, about 4.5 million students (67.4% of the total) are taught in Ukrainian, in Russian – 2.1 million (31.7%)..."
    "Annual Report of the Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights “On the situation with observance and protection of human rights and freedoms in Ukraine” for the period from April 14, 1998 till December 31, 1999"
  44. ↑ "In Central and Western Ukraine there are practically no Russian schools left. In 16 oblasts out of 13,000 schools, 26 are Russian (0.2%). In Kyiv there are almost no Russian schools left: six out of 452. The situation in higher education is even worse. In 19 oblasts there is not a single institution with the instruction in Russian. In Ukrainian schools, Russian literature is included in the international literature course and children have to learn Gogol in the Ukrainian translation. Only in Donbas and the Crimea is the full-fledged Russian education preserved."
    Volodymyr Malynkovych (January 2006). "Ukrainian perspective". Politicheskiy Klass. http://www.igpi.ru/info/people/malink/1139380574.html. 
  45. ↑ "Kyiv: the city, its residents, problems of today, wishes for tomorrow.". Zerkalo Nedeli. April 29 – May 12, 2006. . Available online in Russian and in Ukrainian
  46. ↑ Population composition by the native language according to the Ukrainian Census (2001).
  47. ↑ "Annual Report of the Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights “On the situation with observance and protection of human rights and freedoms in Ukraine” for the period from April 14, 1998 till December 31, 1999"
  48. ↑ "There has been no consistent policy of Ukrainianization. ... [I]t is sometimes difficult to admit that the issue is actually about the assimilation of the Russian-speaking population, which has to be logical and unforced, but so far has been forcible."
    Myroslav Popovych, the director of the Hryhoriy Skovoroda Institute of Philosophy, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, cited through "Inconsistent language policy creates problems in Ukraine" , Eurasia Daily Monitor by The Jamestown Foundation, May 24, 2006
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 The new Ukrainian law on education: a major impediment to the teaching of national minorities' mother tongues
  50. ↑ Ukrainian Language Bill Facing Barrage Of Criticism From Minorities, Foreign Capitals
  51. ↑ "Consolidated version of Regulation No 1 determining the languages to be used by the European Economic Community" (PDF). Europa. European Union. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1958R0001:20070101:EN:PDF. 
  52. ↑ "Languages of Europe – Official EU languages". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/languages/policy/linguistic-diversity/official-languages-eu_en.htm. 
  53. ↑ "Hungary in language dispute with Ukraine over schools". https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41565090. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Про освіту | від 05.09.2017 № 2145-VIII (Сторінка 1 з 7)
  55. ↑ Hungary realizes Ukraine not to change education law – Klimkin, UNIAN (27 June 2018)
  56. ↑ Debate on language provisions of Ukraine’s education law not over – minister, UNIAN (12 January 2018)
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 57.5 "Reconciliation schools: do the new language norms rule Ukraine's conflict with Hungary" (in Ukrainian). European Pravda. 7 January 2020. https://www.eurointegration.com.ua/articles/2020/01/17/7105243/. 
  58. ↑ Ukraine agrees to concessions to Hungary in language row
  59. ↑ "https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2023/06/10/7406297/ with EU languages" (in Ukrainian). European Pravda. 10 June 2023. https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2023/06/10/7406297/. 
  60. ↑ "Ukraine defends education reform as Hungary promises 'pain'". The Irish Times. 27 September 2017. https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/ukraine-defends-education-reform-as-hungary-promises-pain-1.3235916. 
    "Hungary-Ukraine relations hit new low over troop deployment ". New Europe. 26 March 2018.
  61. ↑ Kentish, Portia (March 12, 2020). "Hungary and Ukraine continue war of words over minority rights". https://emerging-europe.com/news/hungary-and-ukraine-continue-war-of-words-over-minority-rights/. 
    "Hungary PM criticizes Ukraine, says no rush to ratify Sweden's NATO bid". Reuters. 25 September 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/hungary-pm-criticizes-ukraine-says-no-rush-ratify-swedens-nato-bid-2023-09-25/. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "Ukraine's Parliament approves changes to national minorities' rights required for EU membership talks". December 2023. https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2023/12/8/7432248/. 
  63. ↑ "Language law comes to force in Ukraine". https://www.unian.info/politics/10618737-language-law-comes-to-force-in-ukraine.html. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 "Anger at Ukraine's ban on Russian". BBC News. 15 April 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3630631.stm. 
  65. ↑ "Ukraine says foreign films must be dubbed in Ukrainian". AFP. December 24, 2007. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hMvSDB9rvglC2L_HJzqnBA-xQUZw. 
  66. ↑ "Only 11% of Ukrainians opposed to more films dubbed in Ukrainian – poll". UNIAN. February 5, 2008. http://www.unian.net/eng/news/news-234543.html. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Holdsworth, Nick (February 12, 2008). "Ukraine defends new cinema rules". Variety. https://variety.com/2008/film/markets-festivals/ukraine-defends-new-cinema-rules-1117980774/. 
  68. ↑ Number of cinema visitors in Ukraine soared by 40%, UNIAN (April 8, 2009)
  69. ↑ Four Russian TV channels allowed to broadcast in Ukraine, UNIAN (February 26, 2009)
  70. ↑ TV channel RTR-Planeta proposes special version for Ukraine, Kyiv Post (October 13, 2009)
  71. ↑ Lavrov: No more problems broadcasting Russian-language television in Ukraine, Kyiv Post (May 13, 2009)
  72. ↑ Офіційний портал Верховної Ради України. Проект Закону про внесення змін до деяких законів України щодо мови аудіовізуальних (електронних) засобів масової інформації
  73. ↑ The law on Ukrainian-language quotas on television has come into force
  74. ↑ Ukraine imposes language quotas for radio playlists, BBC News (8 November 2016)
  75. ↑ Special quotas for radio stations to promote Ukrainian songs enforced today, UNIAN (7 November 2016)
  76. ↑ Ukraine's Deputy PM: Ukrainian language quotas on radio stations grow to 35%, UNIAN (8 November 2018)
  77. ↑ Transcript of televised debates between Yushchenko and Yanukovych of December 20, 2006 , Ukrainska Pravda, December 20, 2004
  78. ↑ "На Украине запретят сдавать экзамены в вузы на русском". http://lenta.ru/news/2005/06/02/exams/. 
  79. ↑ "www.edrus.org/content/view/1210/69/ - Сервис регистрации доменов и хостинга *.RU-TLD.RU". http://www.edrus.org/content/view/1210/69/. 
  80. ↑ "В Горловке закрывают русскоязычные школы". http://ura.dn.ua/archive/?/2006/03/04/~/389. 
  81. ↑ Russian language is legalized. Party of Regions information server
  82. ↑ Borys Kolesnikov: Both languages, Russian and Ukrainian need protection. Party of Regions information server
  83. ↑ Ukrainian Region Makes Russian Official Language[Usurped!] MosNews. Retrieved on 2006, 07-06
  84. ↑ In Dnipropetrovsk the court has cancelled the regional status of Russian korrespondent.net
  85. ↑ Mykolaiv city council reconfirms language vote 5TV Retrieved on 2006, 07-06
  86. ↑ Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. Ksenia Solyanskaya, "Gas would bring us closer", Gazeta.ru August 16, 2006. Reprinted by Korrespondent.net
  87. ↑ Yanukovych imagines how he signs law on Russian language, UNIAN (September 3, 2009)
  88. ↑ Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. "Доверия к Тимошенко у меня нет и быть не может" , Kommersant (December 9, 2009)
  89. ↑ Yanukovych: Ukraine will not have second state language, Kyiv Post (March 9, 2010)
  90. ↑ Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. Poroshenko: Ukraine will never celebrate February 23 , TVi (24 August 2014)
    English-language translation of Poroshenko's Independence Day remarks in Kyiv, Kyiv Post (24 August 2014)
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. President: Day of Airborne Assault Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine will be celebrated on November 21, Presidential Administration of Ukraine (21 November 2017)
  92. ↑ "Ukraine seeks distance from Moscow with new Christmas holiday". 2017-11-16. http://m.digitaljournal.com/news/world/ukraine-seeks-distance-from-moscow-with-new-christmas-holiday/article/507753. 
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. "Рада зробила 25 грудня вихідним днем" (in en-GB). BBC Україна. 2017-11-16. http://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-42008437. 
  94. ↑ "Арка Дружби народів чи Ярмо? Соцмережі тролять ініціативу головного архітектора Києва//Еспресо, 8 вересня 2015". https://espreso.tv/news/2015/09/08/arka_druzhby_narodiv_chy_yarmo_socmerezhi_trolyat_iniciatyvu_golovnogo_arkhitektora_kyyeva. 
  95. ↑ Середа, Софія (25 January 2018). "Софія Середа. «Арка дружби народів» у Києві та війна з Росією: що зробити з радянським монументом?//Радіо Свобода, 24 січня 2018". Радіо Свобода. https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/28994013.html. 

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