Social:ʼPhags-pa script
| ʼPhags-pa Template:PhagspaTemplate:PhagspaTemplate:Phagspa ḥPTemplate:Aynags-pa | |
|---|---|
 Christian tombstone from Quanzhou dated 1314, with inscription in the ʼPhags-pa script Template:Phagspa (-ung shė yang shi mu taw) 'tomb memorial of Yang Wengshe' | |
| Type | |
| Languages | |
| Creator | Drogön Chögyal Phagpa |
Time period | 1269 – c. 1660 |
Parent systems | Egyptian
|
Child systems | Zanabazar's square |
Sister systems | Lepcha, Meitei, Khema, Marchen, Tamyig script |
| Direction | Top-to-bottom |
| ISO 15924 | Phag, 331 |
Unicode alias | Phags-pa |
| U+A840–U+A87F | |
| Chinese romanization |
|---|
| Mandarin |
| Wu |
| Yue |
| Min |
| Gan |
| Hakka |
| Xiang |
| See also |
The Phagspa (/ˈpɑːɡzˌpɑː/ PAHGZ-PAH), Phags-pa|date=February 2025}} ʼPhags-pa or ḥPTemplate:Aynags-pa script[1] is an alphabet designed by the Tibetan monk and State Preceptor (later Imperial Preceptor) Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280) for Kublai Khan (r. 1264–1294), the founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) in China, as a unified script for the written languages within the Yuan. The actual use of this script was limited to about a hundred years during the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, and it fell out of use with the advent of the Ming dynasty.[2][3]
The script was used to write and transcribe varieties of Chinese, the Tibetic languages, Mongolian, the Uyghur language, Sanskrit, probably Persian,[4][5][6] and other neighboring languages during the Yuan era. For historical linguists, its use provides clues about changes in these languages.
Its descendant systems include Horizontal square script, used to write Tibetan and Sanskrit. During the Pax Mongolica the script even made numerous appearances in Western medieval art.[7]
Nomenclature
ʼPhags-pa script: Template:Phagspa mong xol ts.hi "Mongolian script";
Mongolian: дөрвөлжин үсэг dörvöljin üseg, ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ
ᠦᠰᠦᠭ dörbelǰin üsüg "square script"; дөрвөлжин бичиг dörvöljin bichig, ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ
ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ dörbelǰin bičig "square writing";
Tibetan: ཧོར་ཡིག་གསར་པ་, Wylie: hor yig gsar pa "new Mongolian script";
Yuan dynasty Chinese: 蒙古新字; pinyin: měnggǔ xīnzì "new Mongolian script"; 國字; guózì' "national script";
Modern Chinese: 八思巴文; pinyin: bāsībā wén "ʼPhags-pa script"; 帕克斯巴; pàkèsībā;
In English, it is also written as ḥPTemplate:Aynags-pa, Phaspa, Paspa, Baschpah, and Pa-sse-pa.[8]
History
During the Mongol Empire, the Mongol rulers wanted a universal script to write down the languages of the people they subjugated. The Uyghur-based Mongolian alphabet was not a perfect fit for the Middle Mongol language, and it would have been impractical to extend it to a language with a very different phonology like Chinese. Therefore, during the Yuan dynasty (c. 1269), Kublai Khan asked the Tibetan monk ʼPhags-pa to design a new alphabet for use by the whole empire. ʼPhags-pa extended his native Tibetan alphabet[5] to encompass Mongol and Chinese, evidently Central Plains Mandarin.[9] The resulting 38 letters have been known by several descriptive names, such as "square script", based on their shape, but today, are primarily known as the ʼPhags-pa alphabet. Descending from Tibetan script, it is part of the Brahmic family of scripts, which includes Devanagari and scripts used throughout Southeast Asia and Central Asia.[5] It is unique among Brahmic scripts in that it is written from top to bottom,[5] as how classical Chinese used to be written, and as the Mongolian alphabet or later Manchu alphabet is still written.
It did not receive wide acceptance and was not a popular script even among the elite Mongols themselves, although it was used as an official script of the Yuan dynasty until the early 1350s,[10] when the Red Turban Rebellion started. After this, it was mainly used as a phonetic gloss for Mongols learning Chinese characters. In the 20th century, it was also used as one of the scripts on Tibetan currency, as a script for Tibetan seal inscriptions from the Middle Ages up to the 20th century, and for inscriptions on the entrance doors of Tibetan monasteries.
Syllable formation
Although it is an alphabet, ʼPhags-pa is written like a syllabary or abugida, with letters forming a single syllable glued or 'ligated' together.[5]
Top: Approximate values in Middle Chinese. (Values in parentheses were not used for Chinese.)
Second: Standard letter forms.
Third: Seal script forms. (A few letters, marked by hyphens, are not distinct from the preceding letter.)
Unlike the ancestral Tibetan script, all ʼPhags-pa letters are written in temporal order (that is, /CV/ is written in the order C–V for all vowels) and in-line (that is, the vowels are not diacritics). However, vowel letters retain distinct initial forms, and short /a/ is not written except initially, making ʼPhags-pa transitional between an abugida, a syllabary, and a full alphabet. The letters of a ʼPhags-pa syllable are linked together so that they form syllabic blocks.[5]
Typographic forms
ʼPhags-pa was written in a variety of graphic forms. The standard form (top, at right) was blocky, but a "Tibetan" form (bottom) was even more so, consisting almost entirely of straight orthogonal lines and right angles. A "seal script" form (Chinese: 蒙古篆字; pinyin: měnggǔ zhuànzì; "Mongolian Seal Script"), used for imperial seals and the like, was more elaborate, with squared sinusoidal lines and spirals. This ʼPhags-pa script is different from the ʼPhags-pa script, or 八思巴字 in Chinese, that shares the same name but its earliest usage can be traced back to the late 16th century, the early reign of Wanli Emperor. According to Professor Junast 照那斯图 of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, the later ʼPhags-pa script is actually a seal script of Tibetan.[11]
Korean records state that Hangul was based on an "Old Seal Script" (古篆字), which may be ʼPhags-pa and a reference to its Chinese name Chinese: 蒙古篆字; pinyin: měnggǔ zhuànzì (see origin of Hangul).[citation needed] However, it is the simpler standard form of ʼPhags-pa that is the closer graphic match to Hangul.
Letters
Basic letters
The following 41 are the basic ʼPhags-pa letters.
Letters 1-30 and 35-38 are base consonants. The order of Letters 1-30 is the same as the traditional order of the thirty basic letters of the Tibetan script, to which they correspond. Letters 35-38 represent sounds that do not occur in Tibetan, and are either derived from an existing Tibetan base consonant (e.g. Letters 2 and 35 are both derived from the simple Tibetan letter ཁ kha, but are graphically distinct from each other) or from a combination of an existing Tibetan base consonant and the semi-vowel (subjoined) ྭ wa (e.g. Letter 36 is derived from the complex Tibetan letter ཁྭ khwa).
As is the case with Tibetan, these letters have an inherent [a] vowel sound attached to them in non-final positions when no other vowel sign is present (e.g. the letter Template:Phagspa with no attached vowel represents the syllable ka, but with an appended vowel Template:Phagspa i represents the syllable Template:Phagspa ki).
Letters 31-34 and 39 are vowels. Letters 31-34 follow the traditional order of the corresponding Tibetan vowels. Letter 39 represents a vowel quality that does not occur in Tibetan, and may be derived from the Tibetan vowel sign ཻ ai.
Unlike Tibetan, in which vowels signs may not occur in isolation but must always be attached to a base consonant to form a valid syllable, in the ʼPhags-pa script initial vowels other than Template:Phagspa a may occur without a base consonant when they are not the first element in a diphthong (e.g. ue) or a digraph (e.g. eeu and eeo). Thus in Chinese ʼPhags-pa texts the syllables u 吾 wú, on 刓 wán and o 訛 é occur, and in Mongolian ʼPhags-pa texts the words ong qo chas "boats", u su nu (gen.) "water", e du -ee "now" and i hee -een "protection" occur. These are all examples of where 'o, 'u, 'e, 'i etc. would be expected if the Tibetan model had been followed exactly. An exception to this rule is the Mongolian word 'er di nis "jewels", where a single vowel sign is attached to a null base consonant. Note that the letter Template:Phagspa ee is never found in an initial position in any language written in the ʼPhags-pa script (for example, in Tao Zongyi's description of the Old Uighur script, he glosses all instances of Uighur Template:Rotate text e with the ʼPhags-pa letter Template:Phagspa ee, except for when it is found in the initial position, when he glosses it with the ʼPhags-pa letter Template:Phagspa e instead).
However, initial semi-vowels, diphthongs and digraphs must be attached to the null base consonant 'A (Letter 30). So in Chinese ʼPhags-pa texts the syllables 'wen 元 yuán, 'ue 危 wēi and 'eeu 魚 yú occur; and in Mongolian ʼPhags-pa texts the words 'eeu lu "not" and 'eeog bee.e "gave" occur. As there is no sign for the vowel a, which is implicit in an initial base consonant with no attached vowel sign, then words that start with an a vowel must also use the null base consonant letter Template:Phagspa 'a (e.g. Mongolian 'a mi than "living beings"). In Chinese, and rarely Mongolian, another null base consonant Template:Phagspa -a may be found before initial vowels (see "Letter 23" below).
| No. | ʼPhags-pa letter |
Tibetan derivation | Mongolian examples | Chinese examples |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Template:Letter | ཀ | Used only for words of foreign origin, such as kal bu dun (gen. pl.) from Sanskrit kalpa "aeon" [cf. Mongolian ᠭᠠᠯᠠᠪ galab], with the single exception of the common Mongolian word ye kee "large, great" [cf. Mongolian ᠶᠡᠬᠡ yeke] | kiw 裘 qiú, kue 夔 kuí |
| 2 | Template:Letter | ཁ | kheen "who" [cf. Mongolian ᠬᠡᠨ ken] | khang 康 kāng, kheeu 屈 qū |
| 3 | Template:Letter | ག | bi chig "written document, book" [cf. Mongolian ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ bičig] | ging 荊 jīng, gu 古 gǔ |
| 4 | Template:Letter | ང | deng ri "heaven" [cf. Mongolian ᠲᠡᠩᠷᠢ tengri] | ngiw 牛 niú, ngem 嚴 yán, ding 丁 dīng |
| 5 | Template:Letter | ཅ | cay 柴 chái, ci 池 chí | |
| 6 | Template:Letter | ཆ | cha q-an "white" [cf. Mongolian ᠴᠠᠭᠠᠨ čaɣan] | chang 昌 chāng, cheeu 褚 chǔ |
| 7 | Template:Letter | ཇ | jil "year" [cf. Mongolian ᠵᠢᠯ ǰil] | jim 針 zhēn |
| 8 | Template:Letter | ཉ | nyiw 鈕 niǔ | |
| 9 | Template:Letter | ཏ | Mostly used in words of foreign origin, such as 'er ti nis (also 'er di nis) "jewels" [cf. Mongolian ᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢᠰ erdenis] and ta layi "sea, ocean" [cf. Mongolian ᠳᠠᠯᠠᠢ dalai] | ten 田 tián, tung 童 tóng |
| 10 | Template:Letter | ཐ | thu thum "each, all" [cf. Mongolian ᠲᠤᠲᠤᠮ tutum] | thang 湯 tāng, thung 通 tōng |
| 11 | Template:Letter | ད | u ri da nu (gen.) "former, previous" [cf. Mongolian ᠤᠷᠢᠳᠠ urida] | dung 東 dōng, du 都 dū |
| 12 | Template:Letter | ན | ma nu "our" [cf. Mongolian ᠮᠠᠨᠤ manu] | nee 聶 niè, nung 農 nóng, gon 管 guǎn |
| 13 | Template:Letter | པ | Only used in words of foreign origin, such as pur xan "Buddha" [cf. Mongolian ᠪᠤᠷᠬᠠᠨ burqan] | pang 龐 páng, pay 白 bái |
| 14 | Template:Letter | ཕ | phon 潘 pān, phu 浦 pǔ | |
| 15 | Template:Letter | བ | ba sa "then, still, also" [cf. Mongolian ᠪᠠᠰᠠ basa] | ban 班 bān, been 邊 biān |
| 16 | Template:Letter | མ | 'a mi than "living beings" [cf. Mongolian ᠠᠮᠢᠲᠠᠨ amitan] | min 閔 mǐn, mew 苗 miáo, gim 金 jīn |
| 17 | Template:Letter | ཙ | tsaw 曹 cáo, tsin 秦 qín | |
| 18 | Template:Letter | ཚ | Only used in words of foreign origin, such as sha tshin "religion" | tshay 蔡 cài, tshiw 秋 qiū |
| 19 | Template:Letter | ཛ | dzam 昝 zǎn, dzew 焦 jiāo | |
| 20 | Template:Letter | ཝ | Only used in words of foreign origin, such as wa chi ra ba ni "Vajrapāṇi" | wan 萬 wàn, wu 武 wǔ, xiw 侯 hóu, gaw 高 gāo |
| 21 | Template:Letter | ཞ | zheeu 茹 rú, zhew 饒 ráo | |
| 22 | Template:Letter | ཟ | Only found in the single word za ra "month" [cf. Mongolian ᠰᠠᠷᠠ sara] | zin 陳 chén, zeeu 徐 xú, zi 席 xí |
| 23 | Template:Letter | འ | This letter is found rarely initially, e.g. -ir gee nee (dat./loc.) "people" [cf. Mongolian ᠢᠷᠭᠡᠨ irgen], but frequently medially between vowels where it serves to separate a syllable that starts with a vowel from a preceding syllable that ends in a vowel, e.g. er khee -ud "Christians" and q-an "emperor, khan" [cf. Mongolian ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨᠨ qaɣan] (where q-an is a contraction for the hypothetical qa -an) | -an 安 ān, -ing 應 yīng, -eeu 郁 yù |
| 24 | Template:Letter | ཡ | na yan "eighty" [cf. Mongolian ᠨᠠᠶᠠᠨ nayan] | yi 伊 yī, yang 羊 yáng, day 戴 dài, hyay 解 xiè |
| 25 | Template:Letter | ར | chee rig "army" [cf. Mongolian ᠴᠡᠷᠢᠭ čerig] | |
| 26 | Template:Letter | ལ | al ba "tax, tribute" [cf. Mongolian ᠠᠯᠪᠠ alba] | leeu 呂 lǚ, lim 林 lín |
| 27 | Template:Letter | ཤ | shi nee "new" [cf. Mongolian ᠱᠢᠨᠡ šine] | shi 石 shí, shwang 雙 shuāng |
| 28 | Template:Letter | ས | hee chus "end, goal" [cf. Mongolian ᠡᠴᠦᠰ ečüs] | su 蘇 sū, syang 相 xiàng |
| 29 | Template:Letter | ཧ | Initially in words that now have null initials, such as har ban "ten" [cf. Mongolian ᠠᠷᠪᠠᠨ arban], and medially only in the single word -i hee -een (or -i h-een) "protector, guardian" | hwa 花 huā, sh.hi 史 shǐ, l.hing 冷 lěng, j.hang 莊 zhuāng |
| 30 | Template:Letter | ཨ | 'eeu lu "not" [cf. Mongolian ᠦᠯᠦ ülü] | 'wang 王 wáng, 'eeu 虞 yú |
| 31 | Template:Letter | ི | -i hee -een (or -i h-een) "protection" | li 李 lǐ, n.hing 能 néng, heei 奚 xī |
| 32 | Template:Letter | ུ | u su nu (gen.) "water" [cf. Mongolian ᠤᠰᠤᠨ usun] | u 吳 wú, mue 梅 méi |
| 33 | Template:Letter | ེ | e du -ee "now" [cf. Mongolian ᠡᠳᠦᠭᠡ edüge] | ze 謝 xiè, jem 詹 zhān, gue 國 guó |
| 34 | Template:Letter | ོ | ong qo chas "boats" [cf. Mongolian ᠣᠩᠭᠣᠴᠠᠰ ongɣočas] | no 那 nā, mon 滿 mǎn |
| 35 | Template:Letter | ཁ | qa muq "all" [cf. Mongolian ᠬᠠᠮᠤᠭ qamuɣ] | |
| 36 | Template:Letter | ཁྭ | Only used in words of foreign origin, such as pur xan "Buddha" [cf. Mongolian ᠪᠤᠷᠬᠠᠨ burqan] | xu 胡 hú, xong 黃 huáng |
| 37 | Template:Letter | ཧྭ | fang 方 fāng, fi 費 fèi | |
| 38 | Template:Letter | ག | ||
| 39 | Template:Letter | ཻ | el deeb "various" [cf. Mongolian ᠡᠯᠳᠡᠪ eldeb] (Poppe reads this word as eel deeb, as the only example of an initial Template:Phagspa ee) | chee 車 chē, seeu 胥 xū, geeing 經 jīng |
| 40 | Template:Letter | ྭ | xway 懷 huái, jwaw 卓 zhuō, gwang 廣 guǎng | |
| 41 | Template:Letter | ྱ | hya 夏 xià, gya 家 jiā, dzyang 蔣 jiǎng |
Additional letters
| No. | ʼPhags-pa letter |
Tibetan derivation | Sanskrit or Tibetan Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| 42 | Template:Letter | ཊ | sha tt-a pa ... i ta (Sanskrit ṣaṭ pāramitā) [Ill.3 Line 6] |
| 43 | Template:Letter | ཋ | pra tish tthi te (Sanskrit pratiṣṭhite) [Ill.3 Line 8] (TTHA plus unreversed I)
dhish tthi te (Sanskrit dhiṣṭhite) [Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī Line 16] (TTHA plus reversed I) nish tthe (Sanskrit niṣṭhe) [Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī Line 10] (TTHA plus reversed E) |
| 44 | Template:Letter | ཌ | dann dde (Sanskrit daṇḍaya) [Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī Line 14]
'-a kad ddha ya (Sanskrit ākaḍḍhaya) [Ill.4 Line 7] (DDA plus reversed HA) |
| 45 | Template:Letter | ཎ | sb-a ra nna (Sanskrit spharaṇa) [Ill.3 Line 3]
ush nni ... (Sanskrit uṣṇīṣa) [Ill.3 Line 6] (NNA plus reversed I) kshu nnu (Sanskrit kṣuṇu) [Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī Line 2] (NNA plus reversed U) ha ra nne (Sanskrit haraṇe) [Ill.4 Line 5] (NNA plus reversed E) pu nn.ya (Sanskrit puṇya) [Tathāgatahṛdaya-dhāraṇī Line 13] (NNA plus reversed subjoined Y) |
| 46 | Template:Letter | ྲ | bh-ru^ (Sanskrit bhrūṁ) [Ill.3 Line 2]
mu dre (Sanskrit mudre) [Ill.3 Line 9] ba dzra (Sanskrit vajra) [Ill.3 Line 9] bkra shis (Tibetan bkra-shis "prosperity, good fortune") [Ill.5] |
| 47 | Template:Letter | ར | sangs rgyas (Tibetan sangs-rgyas "Buddha") [Ill.6] |
| 48 | Template:Letter | ྃ | o^ bh-ru^ bh-ru^ (Sanskrit oṁ bhrūṁ bhrūṁ) [Ill.3 Line 2]
sa^ ha ... (Sanskrit saṁhatana) [Ill.3 Line 9] |
Menggu Ziyun
Following are the initials of the ʼPhags-pa script as presented in Menggu Ziyun. They are ordered according to the Chinese philological tradition of the 36 initials.
| No. | Name | Phonetic value |
ʼPhags-pa letter |
ʼPhags-pa Initial |
Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 見 jiàn | *[k] | Template:Phagspa | g- | |
| 2 | 溪 qī | *[kʰ] | Template:Phagspa | kh- | |
| 3 | 群 qún | *[ɡ] | Template:Phagspa | k- | |
| 4 | 疑 yí | *[ŋ] | Template:Phagspa | ng- | |
| 5 | 端 duān | *[t] | Template:Phagspa | d- | |
| 6 | 透 tòu | *[tʰ] | Template:Phagspa | th- | |
| 7 | 定 dìng | *[d] | Template:Phagspa | t- | |
| 8 | 泥 ní | *[n] | Template:Phagspa | n- | |
| 9 | 知 zhī | *[ʈ] | Template:Phagspa | j- | |
| 10 | 徹 chè | *[ʈʰ] | Template:Phagspa | ch- | |
| 11 | 澄 chéng | *[ɖ] | Template:Phagspa | c- | |
| 12 | 娘 niáng | *[ɳ] | Template:Phagspa | ny- | |
| 13 | 幫 bāng | *[p] | Template:Phagspa | b- | |
| 14 | 滂 pāng | *[pʰ] | Template:Phagspa | ph- | |
| 15 | 並 bìng | *[b] | Template:Phagspa | p- | |
| 16 | 明 míng | *[m] | Template:Phagspa | m- | |
| 17 | 非 fēi | *[p̪] | Template:Phagspa | f- | Normal form of the letter fa |
| 18 | 敷 fū | *[p̪ʰ] | Template:Phagspa | f¹- | Variant form of the letter fa |
| 19 | 奉 fèng | *[b̪] | Template:Phagspa | f- | Normal form of the letter fa |
| 20 | 微 wēi | *[ɱ] | Template:Phagspa | w- | Represents [v] |
| 21 | 精 jīng | *[ts] | Template:Phagspa | dz- | |
| 22 | 清 qīng | *[tsʰ] | Template:Phagspa | tsh- | |
| 23 | 從 cóng | *[dz] | Template:Phagspa | ts- | |
| 24 | 心 xīn | *[s] | Template:Phagspa | s- | |
| 25 | 邪 xié | *[z] | Template:Phagspa | z- | |
| 26 | 照 zhào | *[tɕ] | Template:Phagspa | j- | |
| 27 | 穿 chuān | *[tɕʰ] | Template:Phagspa | ch- | |
| 28 | 床 chuáng | *[dʑ] | Template:Phagspa | c- | |
| 29 | 審 shěn | *[ɕ] | Template:Phagspa | sh¹- | Variant form of the letter sha |
| 30 | 禪 chán | *[ʑ] | Template:Phagspa | sh- | Normal form of the letter sha |
| 31 | 曉 xiǎo | *[x] | Template:Phagspa | h- | Normal form of the letter ha |
| 32 | 匣 xiá | *[ɣ] | Template:Phagspa | x- | |
| Template:Phagspa | h¹- | Variant form of the letter ha | |||
| 33 | 影 yǐng | *[ʔ] | Template:Phagspa | ʼ- | glottal stop |
| Template:Phagspa | y- | Normal form of the letter ya | |||
| 34 | 喻 yù | *[j] | Template:Phagspa | - | null initial |
| Template:Phagspa | y¹- | Variant form of the letter ya | |||
| 35 | 來 lái | *[l] | Template:Phagspa | l- | |
| 36 | 日 rì | *[ɲ] | Template:Phagspa | zh- |
Shilin Guangji
The Shilin Guangji used Phagspa to annotate Chinese text, serving as a precursor to modern pinyin. The following are the Phagspa transcriptions of a section of the Hundred Family Surnames in the Shilin Guangji. For example, the name Jin (金), meaning gold, is written as Template:Phagspa gim.[12]
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ʼPhags-pa Spelling | Template:Phagspa cew | Template:Phagspa dzen | Template:Phagspa sun | Template:Phagspa li | Template:Phagspa jiw | Template:Phagspa u | Template:Phagspa cing | Template:Phagspa 'wang | Template:Phagspa fung | Template:Phagspa cin |
| Chinese Character | 趙 zhào | 錢 qián | 孫 sūn | 李 lǐ | 周 zhōu | 吳 wú | 鄭 zhèng | 王 wáng | 馮 féng | 陳 chén |
Unicode
ʼPhags-pa script was added to the Unicode Standard in July 2006 with the release of version 5.0.
The Unicode block for ʼPhags-pa is U+A840–U+A877: Template:Unicode chart Phags-pa
U+A856 Template:Phagspa PHAGS-PA LETTER SMALL A is transliterated using U+A78F ꞏ LATIN LETTER SINOLOGICAL DOT from the Latin Extended-D Unicode block.[13]
See also
- Brahmic scripts
- Mongolian alphabets
- Origin of hangul
- Mongol elements in Western medieval art
- Menggu Ziyun (Yuan dynasty ʼPhags-pa—Chinese rhyming dictionary)
- Shilin Guangji
- Siddhaṃ script
References
- ↑ Nicholas Poppe (1974). Grammar of Written Mongolian (3rd ed.). p. 6.
- ↑ Mote, Frederick W. (1999). Imperial China, 900-1800. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 484. ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7.
- ↑ Lal, Dinesh (2008). Indo-Tibet-China conflict. Delhi: Kalpaz Publications. pp. 43. ISBN 9788178357140. https://books.google.com/books?id=kFGhwZxeG5kC.
- ↑ "CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS viii. Persian Lang. – Encyclopaedia Iranica". http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chinese-iranian-viii.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "BabelStone : ʼPhags-pa Script : Description". http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/Description.html.
- ↑ "BabelStone : Phags-pa Script : Overview". http://www.babelstone.co.uk/Phags-pa/Overview.html.
- ↑ Mack, Rosamond E. (2002). Bazaar to Piazza: Islamic Trade and Italian Art, 1300-1600. University of California Press. pp. 61. ISBN 978-0-520-22131-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=09sA4SNG2dYC&pg=PA61.
- ↑ Wylie, Alexander (1 January 1871). "On an Ancient Buddhist Inscription at Keu-yung kwan, in North China". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 5 (1): 25.
- ↑ Coblin, W. South (2002). "Reflections on the Study of Post-Medieval Chinese Historical Phonology". in 何大安. 第三屆國際漢學會議論文集: 語言組. 南北是非 : 漢語方言的差異與變化. Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. pp. 23–50. ISBN 978-957-671-936-3. http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/files/publication/o0004_02_5568.pdf. Retrieved 21 October 2011. p. 31.
- ↑ Kim, Sangkeun (2006): Strange names of God. The missionary translation of the divine name and the Chinese responses to Matteo Ricci’s Shangti in Late Ming China, 1583–1644. By Sangkeun Kim (Studies in Biblical Literature, 70.) New York: Peter Lang, 2004. ISBN 0-8204-7130-5; p.139
- ↑ Junast 照那斯图 (April 2003). "一种从八思巴字脱胎而来的文字 (in Chinese)". Minority Languages of China 民族语文 2002 (3): 56–58.
- ↑ Chen Yuanjing. Shilin Guangji. Yuan dynasty, Mongol Empire.
- ↑ West, Andrew (2009-04-04). "L2/09-031R: Proposal to encode a Middle Dot letter for Phags-pa transliteration". https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09031r-n3567r.pdf.
Further reading
- Coblin, W. South (2006). A Handbook of ʼPhags-pa Chinese. ABC Dictionary Series. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3000-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=3q6nja-Ii8gC. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Denlinger, Paul. B. (1963). Chinese in Hp'ags-pa Script. https://books.google.com/books?id=4mHKuAAACAAJ. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Everding, Karl-Heinz (2006). Herrscherurkunden aus der Zeit des mongolischen Großreiches für tibetische Adelshäuser, Geistliche und Klöster. Teil 1: Diplomata Mongolica. Mittelmongolische Urkunden in ʼPhags-pa-Schrift. Eidtion, Übersetzung, Analyse. Halle: International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies. ISBN 978-3-88280-074-6.
- Poppe, Nicholas (1957). The Mongolian Monuments in hP´ags-pa Script (Second ed.). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Sampson, Geoffrey (1985). Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction. Great Britain: Anchor Brenton Ltd. ISBN 978-0-09-156980-8.
- Schuh, Dieter (1981). Grundlagen tibetischer Siegelkunde. Eine Untersuchung über tibetische Siegelaufschriften in ʼPhags-pa-Schrift. Sankt Augustin: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 978-3-88280-011-1.
External links
- BabelStone: ʼPhags-pa Script (with free fonts)
- Omniglot: ʼPhags-pa script
- Ancientscripts: hPhags-pa
- Mongolian characters after Kublai Khan
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