Software:Oracle Database

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Oracle AI Database
Developer(s)Oracle Corporation
Initial release1979; 47 years ago (1979)
Stable release
Written inAssembly language, C, C++[1]
TypeMulti-model database management system
LicenseProprietary[2]
Websitewww.oracle.com/database/

Oracle AI Database (commonly referred to as Oracle Database, Oracle DBMS, Oracle Autonomous Database, or simply as Oracle) is a proprietary multi-model database management system developed and marketed by Oracle Corporation. First released in 1979, it was among the earliest commercially available databases to use SQL.[3]

It is commonly used for online transaction processing (OLTP), data warehousing (DW), and mixed database workloads. As a converged database, it supports multiple data models within a single engine, including relational, JSON document, XML, spatial, graph, text, and AI vector data, all queryable through SQL.[4]

Oracle AI Database runs on-premises, on Oracle engineered systems such as Oracle Exadata, on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure, and as a managed Autonomous Database service.[5] It is also offered inside Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, and Amazon Web Services data centers through Oracle's multicloud offerings.[6] The current long-term release is Oracle AI Database 26ai, which was introduced in October 2025.[7]

History

Larry Ellison and his two friends and former co-workers, Bob Miner and Ed Oates, started a consultancy called Software Development Laboritories (SDL) in 1977, later Oracle Corporation. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a Central Intelligence Agency-funded project Ellison has worked on while formerly employed by Ampex;[8] the CIA was Oracle's first customer, and allowed the company to use the code name for the new product.[9][10]

Growth and the internet era

Oracle Corporation held its initial public offering on March 12, 1986.[11] The company grew rapidly during the 1980s, though a financial setback in 1990 led to its first quarterly loss and significant layoffs before the business recovered.[12] Oracle7, released in 1992, matured the product into a leading enterprise relational database management system, adding persistent PL/SQL stored procedures and triggers, a cost-based query optimizer, and improved administration tools.[12]

Clustering, grid, and cloud computing

Oracle Database 12c (2013) introduced the multitenant architecture and the In-Memory Column Store, with "c" denoting "cloud". In 2017 Oracle announced Oracle Autonomous Database, a self-managing cloud service, with the first services becoming available in 2018.[13] Beyond the on-premises editions, Oracle Autonomous Database automates provisioning, tuning, patching, and scaling and is offered in data-warehousing and transaction-processing variants.[14]

Architecture

Architecture of a single-instance Oracle Database, showing the instance and the database files.

Instances and databases

An Oracle AI Database system consists of an instance and a database. The instance is a set of memory structures and background processes; the database is the set of files that store data.[15] An instance exists only in memory, and in the multitenant configuration a single instance is associated with one container database.[16] Client programs connect to the database through server processes, established by way of the Oracle Net listener.[15]

Memory

The principal memory structures are the System Global Area (SGA), shared by all server and background processes, and the Program Global Areas (PGA), which are private to individual processes. The shared pool, database buffer cache, and redo log buffer are components of the SGA, and the optional In-Memory Column Store also resides there. Each PGA holds session information and the work areas used to process SQL statements.[15]

Processes

Background processes operate on the database files and use the memory structures to do their work. They include the database writer, the log writer, the checkpoint process, the system monitor and process monitor processes, and the archiver processes that copy redo logs for recovery. Server processes handle connections from client programs and run their SQL statements.[15]

Storage structures

Storage is organized both logically and physically. Logically, data is held in tablespaces composed of segments, extents, and data blocks. Physically, the database comprises data files, control files, and online redo log files, with archived redo logs supporting media recovery. Data files can be placed on conventional file systems or managed by Automatic Storage Management (ASM), a volume manager and file system built into the database.[15]

Multitenant architecture

Architecture of a single-instance Oracle Database, showing the instance and the database files.

Oracle Database 12c introduced the multitenant architecture, based on container databases (CDBs) and pluggable databases (PDBs). A CDB contains a root container (CDB$ROOT) that holds Oracle-supplied metadata and common users, a seed PDB (PDB$SEED) used as a template for creating new PDBs, and zero or more user-created PDBs. Beginning with Oracle Database 21c, the multitenant container database is the only supported architecture; earlier releases also supported non-container (non-CDB) databases.[16] A PDB appears to a client or application as an independent database, while from the operating system's perspective the CDB is the database. Because PDBs are portable, they can be unplugged from one CDB and plugged into another, supporting database consolidation, cloning, and patching at the container level.[16]

Concurrency and consistency

Oracle Database provides multiversion read consistency, also known as consistent read. When a transaction modifies data, the database writes the previous values to undo segments, allowing earlier versions of the same data to be read without blocking ongoing writes. In Oracle’s default read-committed isolation mode, each SQL statement sees only committed data, and that data is consistent as of a single point in time when the statement began; newly committed changes from other transactions are not incrementally exposed while the statement is running. Serializable and read-only transactions extend this behavior to transaction-level read consistency, so the transaction sees data as of the time the transaction began. This model allows reads and writes to proceed without blocking one another.[15]

Data models

Oracle AI Database is a converged, multi-model database: a single engine natively supports several data models and processes them under one set of transactional guarantees, rather than relying on separate specialized systems. Independent reporting describes the engine as handling relational, JSON document, graph, spatial, and vector data together in one ACID-transactional engine, allowing these models to be combined without moving data between systems.[17] The database-cataloging site DB-Engines likewise classifies Oracle as a multi-model system, listing document, graph, and spatial models alongside its primary relational model.[18]

JSON Relational Duality, introduced in Oracle Database 23ai, lets the same data be accessed and updated either as relational tables or as JSON documents.[19]

Relational data types

Oracle AI Database includes traditional structured data stored in tables, using numeric, character, and date/time types. These form the basis of SQL-based data storage and querying and are used alongside other data models within the same database system.[20]

High availability and scalability

Oracle Database includes technologies for high availability, disaster recovery, and scale-out deployment, including Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), Oracle Data Guard, Oracle GoldenGate, Oracle Flashback, Oracle Sharding, and Oracle Exadata.[21]

High availability and disaster recovery

Oracle Real Application Clusters (Oracle RAC) is a shared-database clustering technology in which multiple database instances run on separate servers while accessing the same database. RAC was first released as part of Oracle 9.0.1 in 2001.[22]

Oracle Data Guard protects a primary database by maintaining real-time standby copy(s) of the primary database that can be used for disaster recovery and role transitions such as switchover and failover.[23] Active Data Guard extends this approach by allowing read-only workloads to run on a physical standby database while redo changes continue to be applied from the primary database.[23]

Oracle GoldenGate is a replication product used for heterogeneous replication across different database platforms and vendors.[24]

Oracle Flashback technologies provide point-in-time recovery features used to correct user-induced errors, including Flashback Query, Flashback Table, Flashback Drop, and Flashback Database.[25]

Scalability

Oracle Globally Distributed Database, formerly known as Oracle Sharding, distributes data from a single logical database across multiple independent databases, called shards, so that each shard stores part of the data and can run on separate resources.[26] Oracle AI Database 26ai added RAFT-based replication for globally distributed database deployments, supporting higher availability and automatic failover across shards.[27]

Oracle Exadata is an engineered database system that combines database servers with storage servers. Its Smart Scan storage-offload feature moves some processing, such as predicate filtering and column projection, from the database layer to the storage layer, reducing the volume of data returned to the database servers.[28]

Performance

Oracle Database includes features intended to improve query and transaction performance on large data sets, including Database In-Memory, partitioning, parallel execution, and compression.

The Database In-Memory feature adds an in-memory column store for selected database objects, allowing analytic queries to use a column-oriented in-memory representation, while the data can be stored in either transactional oriented row format or analytics oriented hybrid-columnar format.[29]

Partitioning divides large tables and indexes into smaller physical pieces that remain a single logical object to applications. Each partition can be managed separately, and query performance can improve when the optimizer eliminates irrelevant partitions, a technique known as partition pruning.[30][31]

For large operations, parallel execution can break a statement or other database task into smaller units that are processed concurrently, allowing the system to use more CPU and input/output resources than a serial execution plan.[32]

Oracle Database also supports several table-compression methods. OLTP compression is intended for active tables, while Hybrid Columnar Compression reorganizes data into compression units and provides query and archive compression modes with higher compression ratios for less frequently updated data.[33][34]

Security

Oracle Database includes security features for encryption, auditing, and access control. A Common Criteria certification report for Oracle AI Database 26ai identified configurable audit capture, fine-grained access controls, user identification and authentication, and security management among the security functions of the evaluated target.[35]

Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) encrypts database data below the SQL layer, with the database engine encrypting and decrypting data as it reads and writes it from the file system.[36] Data redaction and masking features are used to reduce exposure of sensitive information in query results and applications.[37]

For access control, Virtual Private Database (VPD) dynamically adds predicates to SQL statements against tables or views, allowing row and column restrictions to be enforced by database policies.[38] Oracle Label Security provides label-based row-level access control on protected tables,[39] and Oracle Database Vault adds mandatory access controls such as realms and command rules to restrict access to schemas, objects, and SQL operations, including by highly privileged users.[35]

Oracle Database 23ai added security and privilege-management features including SQL Firewall, schema-level privileges, and enhanced data redaction and masking.[37]

Oracle AI Database 26ai added Deep Data Security, described in third-party coverage as embedding fine-grained authorization directly in the database for workloads such as AI agents, analytics tools, and enterprise applications.[40] Oracle AI Database 26ai received Common Criteria certification at EAL2 augmented by ALC_FLR.3 for a specified evaluated configuration; the certification report noted that Database Vault, Oracle Label Security, external clients, DBaaS deployments, and RAC were outside that evaluated configuration.[35]

AI capabilities

In 2024, Oracle renamed the long-term Oracle Database 23c release as Oracle Database 23ai, a change independent coverage attributed to the addition of features for AI-oriented application development.[41] Oracle AI Database 26ai later added features aimed at agentic AI use cases, including Select AI Agent, Agent Factory, and integration with Oracle's MCP servers.[42]

AI Vector Search, introduced with the 23c/23ai generation, adds a native vector data type, vector indexes, and vector-search SQL operators. These features allow semantic representations of documents, images, and other unstructured data to be stored as vectors and used for similarity search in Oracle Database.[43][41] Coverage of the 23ai release also described AI Vector Search as supporting retrieval-augmented generation, a technique that combines large language models with private business data to answer natural-language questions.[43]

Select AI is a natural-language interface for querying data in Oracle AI Database. Independent coverage described the feature as allowing users to query data in natural language and use large language models to generate SQL for those questions.[43][42] In 26ai, Select AI Agent extended this approach into a framework for building, deploying, and managing agents that can use database functions and knowledge context.[42]

Oracle has also added support for the Model Context Protocol (MCP) through an MCP server for Oracle Database, integrated with SQLcl. InfoWorld described the server as allowing developers to build AI agents that can query, retrieve, and reason over enterprise data in Oracle Databases without custom integration layers.[44] The 26ai release also added AI Private Agent Factory, described in third-party coverage as a no-code framework for deploying private, containerized agents in controlled environments.[42]

The database also includes older in-database machine-learning and data-mining capabilities. Predictive Analytics Using Oracle Data Miner describes Oracle Data Miner and Oracle Data Mining as supporting models such as association rules, classification, clustering, regression, and anomaly detection, with models built and used through SQL and PL/SQL packages.[45] A later Apress book describes the Oracle Machine Learning platform as including OML4SQL, OML Notebooks, OML4R, and OML4Py for developing and deploying machine-learning models with Oracle Database and Autonomous Database.[46]

Programming and development

Oracle Database is programmed and queried primarily through SQL, a language used to define, access, and manipulate relational data.[47] Oracle Database extends SQL with PL/SQL, a procedural language used for server-side program units such as stored procedures, functions, triggers, and packages.[48]

Application logic can also run inside the database in other languages. Oracle8i introduced support for Java stored procedures, allowing Java code to be called from PL/SQL.[49] Oracle Database 21c added in-database JavaScript execution through the Oracle Multilingual Engine, with interfaces to Oracle data types, SQL, and PL/SQL stored procedures.[50]

Applications connect to Oracle Database through client drivers and programming interfaces. Examples include the Oracle Call Interface (OCI), a low-level application programming interface commonly used from C and through higher-level language bindings; Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) for Java applications; ODP.NET for .NET applications; and python-oracledb for Python applications.[51]

For web application development, Oracle REST Data Services (ORDS) provides a REST-oriented access layer for Oracle Database.[52] Oracle Application Express (APEX) is a web-based application development framework built into Oracle Database.[53] In 2024, Oracle added APEX AI Assistant to APEX 24.1, enabling natural-language application creation, SQL assistance, and conversational AI interfaces in applications.[54]

Editions

Oracle sells its database in a full-featured Enterprise Edition and a lower-cost Standard Edition, and it also offers free developer editions and a managed cloud service.

In September 2015, alongside the Oracle Database 12.1.0.2 release, Oracle replaced its earlier Standard Edition and Standard Edition One with a single Standard Edition 2 (SE2), a lower-cost alternative to Enterprise Edition. SE2 may be licensed only on servers with a maximum of two processor sockets, down from four in the previous Standard Edition, and it limits Real Application Clusters deployments to two single-socket nodes.[55]

Oracle Database Free is a free, developer-focused edition. Oracle released it to developers in early 2023 as Oracle Database 23c Free, and made the underlying release generally available in 2024 as Oracle Database 23ai.[19] It follows Oracle's earlier free Express Edition (XE), an entry-level, resource-limited edition offered for development and evaluation.[56]

Oracle also offers the database as a fully managed cloud service, Oracle Autonomous Database, which automates administration and was introduced for data-warehousing workloads in 2017 before expanding to transaction processing.[14]

Releases and versions

Oracle products follow a custom release-numbering and -naming convention. The "ai" in the current release, Oracle AI Database 26ai, stands for "Artificial Intelligence". Previous releases (e.g. Oracle Database 19c, 10g, and Oracle9i Database) have used suffixes of "c", "g", and "i" which stand for "Cloud", "Grid", and "Internet" respectively. Prior to the release of Oracle8i Database, no suffixes featured in Oracle AI Database naming conventions. There was no v1 of Oracle AI Database, as Ellison "knew no one would want to buy version 1".[10][57] For some database releases, Oracle also provides an Express Edition (XE) that is free to use.[58][59]

Oracle AI Database release numbering has used the following codes:

{{{2}}} LTR = Long-Term Release, IR = Innovation Release
Oracle
Database
Version 		Initial
Release
Version 		Initial
Release
Date 		Terminal
Version 		Marquee
Features
Oracle AI Database 26ai (LTR) 23.26.0 Starting with Release Update 23.26.0, released in October 2025, Oracle Database 23ai is replaced by Oracle AI Database 26ai.

Applying Release Update 23.26.0 to an existing Oracle Database 23ai deployment converts it to Oracle AI Database 26ai without requiring a separate database upgrade or application re-certification[60]

AI is natively architected into Oracle AI Database and SQL; unifies all major data models and workloads in a single converged engine; Model Context Protocol (MCP) Server support; Oracle Unified Memory Core for agent context across multiple data types; AI Semantic Models; unified relational, JSON, and graph data model; Private Agent Factory and Select AI Agent; Oracle Vectors on Ice for Apache Iceberg tables; Autonomous AI Lakehouse; Deep Data Security; Private AI Services Container[61]
Oracle Database 23ai (LTR) 23.4.0 From Release Update 23.26.0 onward, 23ai is replaced by Oracle AI Database 26ai[62]

On May 2, 2024, Oracle Database 23ai[63] was released on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI) as cloud services, including OCI Exadata Database Service, OCI Exadata Database Cloud@Customer, and OCI Base Database Service. It is also available in Always Free Autonomous Database. Oracle Database 23c (previously released in 2023) was renamed to Oracle Database 23ai (23.4) due to the significant additional engineering effort to add features that bring AI capabilities to the data in Oracle AI Database.

Oracle Database 23c (23.2 and 23.3) was released in 2023: April 2023 (Linux) Oracle Database Free - Developer Release[64] September 2023 Oracle AI Database on Base Database Service[65]

AI Vector Search[66] (includes new Vector data type, Vector indexes, and Vector SQL operators/functions), JSON Relational Duality,[67] JSON Schema Validation, Transactional Microservices Support, OKafka, Operational Property Graphs, Support for SQL/PGQ, Schema Privileges, Developer Role, In-database SQL Firewall, TLS 1.3 Support, Integration with Azure Active Directory OAuth2, True Cache for mid-tier caching, Readable Per-PDB Standby, Globally Distributed Database with active-active RAFT-based replication, Real-time SQL Plan Management, Priority Transactions, SQL Syntax Simplification, Schema Annotations, Data Use Case Domains, Column Value Lock-free Reservations
Oracle Database 21c (IR) 21.1.0 December 2020 (cloud)[68]

August 2021 (Linux)[69]

Blockchain Tables, Multilingual Engine - JavaScript Execution in the Database, Binary JSON Data Type, Per-PDB Data Guard Physical Standby (aka Multitenant Data Guard), Per-PDB GoldenGate Change Capture, Self-Managing In-Memory, In-Memory Hybrid Columnar Scan, In-Memory Vector Joins with SIMD, Sharding Advisor Tool, Property Graph Visualization Studio, Automatic Materialized Views, Automatic Zone Maps, SQL Macros, Gradual Password Rollover
Oracle Database 19c (LTR) 19.1.0 // 12.2.0.3 February 2019 (Exadata)[70]

April 2019 (Linux)[71]
June 2019 (cloud)

Active Data Guard DML Redirection, Automatic Index Creation, Real-Time Statistics Maintenance, SQL Queries on Object Stores, In-Memory for IoT Data Streams, Hybrid Partitioned Tables, Automatic SQL Plan Management, SQL Quarantine, Zero-Downtime Grid Infrastructure Patching, Finer-Granularity Supplemental Logging, Automated PDB Relocation
Oracle Database 18c (IR) 18.1.0 // 12.2.0.2 February 2018 (cloud, Exadata)[72]

July 2018 (other)[73]

18.17.0
January 2022 		Polymorphic Table Functions, Active Directory Integration, Transparent Application Continuity, Approximate Top-N Query Processing, PDB Snapshot Carousel, Online Merging of Partitions and Subpartitions
Oracle Database 12c Release 2 12.2.0.1
March 2017 		August 2016 (cloud)

March 2017 (on-premises)

12.2.0.1
March 2017 		Native Sharding, Analytic Views[74], Zero Data Loss Recovery Appliance, Exadata Cloud Service, Cloud at CustomerZero Data Loss Recovery Appliance, Exadata Cloud Service, Cloud at Customer
Oracle Database 12c Release 1 12.1.0.1 July 2013[75] 12.1.0.2
July 2014 		Multitenant architecture, In-Memory Column Store, Native JSON, SQL Pattern Matching, Database Cloud Service
Oracle Database 11g Release 2 11.2.0.1 September 2009[76] 11.2.0.4
August 2013 		Edition-Based Redefinition, Data Redaction, Hybrid Columnar Compression, Cluster File System, Golden Gate Replication, Database Appliance
Oracle Database 11g Release 1 11.1.0.6 September 2007 11.1.0.7
September 2008 		Active Data Guard, Secure Files, Exadata
Oracle Database 10g Release 2 10.2.0.1 July 2005[77] 10.2.0.5
April 2010 		Real Application Testing, Database Vault, Online Indexing, Advanced Compression, Data Guard Fast-Start Failover, Transparent Data Encryption
Oracle Database 10g Release 1 10.1.0.2 2003 10.1.0.5
February 2006 		Automated Database Management, Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor, Grid infrastructure, Oracle ASM, Flashback Database
Oracle9i Database Release 2 9.2.0.1 2002 9.2.0.8
April 2007 		Advanced Queuing, Data Mining, Streams, Logical Standby
Oracle9i Database 9.0.1.0 2001 9.0.1.5
December 2003 		Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC), Oracle XML DB
Oracle8i Database 8.1.5.0 1998 8.1.7.4
August 2000 		Native internet protocols and Java, Virtual Private Database
Oracle8 Database 8.0.3 June 1997 8.0.6 Recovery Manager, Partitioning. First version available for Linux.[78]
Oracle 7.3 7.3.0 February 1996 7.3.4 Object-relational database
Oracle 7.2 7.2.0 May 1995 Shared Server, XA Transactions, Transparent Application Failover
Oracle 7.1 7.1.0 May 1994 Parallel SQL Execution. First version available for Windows NT.[79]
Oracle7 7.0.12 June 1992 Distributed 2-phase commit,[80] PL/SQL stored procedures, triggers, shared cursors, cost-based optimizer
Oracle 6.2 6.2.0 Oracle Parallel Server
Oracle v6 6.0.17 1988 6.0.37 Row-level locking, SMP scalability / performance, storing of undo in database,[80] online backup and recovery, B*Tree indexes, PL/SQL executed from compiled programs (C etc.). First version available for Novell Netware 386.[81]
Oracle v5 5.0.22 (5.1.17) 1985 5.1.22 C2 security certification. Support for distributed database systems[80] and client/server computing. First version available for OS/2. Correlated sub-queries.[82] DOS version supports extended memory.[80]
Oracle v4 4.1.4.0 1984 4.1.4.4 Multiversion read consistency. Halloween Problem solved. Improved concurrency.[80] First version available for MS-DOS[83][84] and IBM mainframe.[80]
Oracle v3 3.1.3 1983 Concurrency control, data distribution, and scalability. Re-written in C for portability to other operating systems, including UNIX.[85][80]
Oracle v2 2.3 1979 First commercially available SQL RDBMS. Basic SQL queries, simple joins[86] and CONNECT BY joins. Atomic role-level SQL statements. Rudimentary concurrency control and database integrity. No query optimizer. Written in assembly language for the PDP-11[80] to run in 128KB of RAM.[87] Ran on PDP-11 and VAX/VMS in PDP-11 compatibility mode.[80]
{{{2}}} LTR = Long-Term Release, IR = Innovation Release

The Introduction to Oracle AI Database includes a brief history on some of the key innovations introduced with each major release of Oracle AI Database.

See My Oracle Support (MOS) note Release Schedule of Current Database Releases (Doc ID 742060.1) for the current Oracle AI Database releases and their patching end dates.

Patch updates and security alerts

Prior to Oracle Database 18c, Oracle Corporation released Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) and Security Patch Updates (SPUs)[88] and Security Alerts to close security vulnerabilities. These releases are issued quarterly; some of these releases have updates issued prior to the next quarterly release.

Starting with Oracle Database 18c, Oracle Corporation releases Release Updates (RUs) and Release Update Revisions (RURs).[89] RUs usually contain security, regression (bug), optimizer, and functional fixes which may include feature extensions as well. RURs include all fixes from their corresponding RU but only add new security and regression fixes. However, no new optimizer or functional fixes are included.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Lextrait, Vincent (March 2016). "The Programming Languages Beacon, v16". http://www.lextrait.com/Vincent/implementations.html. 
  2. ↑ "OTN Standard License", Technical network (Oracle), https://www.oracle.com/technetwork/licenses/standard-license-152015.html 
  3. ↑ "DB-Engines Ranking". https://db-engines.com/en/ranking. 
  4. ↑ "Oracle Database Features". https://www.oracle.com/database/features/. 
  5. ↑ "Cloud database comparison: AWS, Microsoft, Google and Oracle | TechTarget" (in en). https://www.techtarget.com/searchdatamanagement/tip/Cloud-database-comparison-AWS-Microsoft-Google-and-Oracle. 
  6. ↑ "Multicloud Solutions for Your Business" (in en-US). https://www.oracle.com/cloud/multicloud/. 
  7. ↑ Shimmin, Brad; Kirkpatrick, Keith. "Oracle Positions AI Database 26ai to Lead $1.2 Trillion Market by Bridging the Agentic Reasoning Gap" (in en-US). https://futurumgroup.com/insights/oracle-positions-ai-database-26ai-to-lead-1-2-trillion-market-by-bridging-the-agentic-reasoning-gap/. 
  8. ↑ "Welcome to Larryland | The Guardian | guardian.co.uk". https://www.theguardian.com/g2/story/0,3604,215072,00.html. 
  9. ↑ "Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) workshop : Oracle - 102746581 - CHM" (in en). https://www.computerhistory.org/collections/catalog/102746581. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Julie Bort (29 September 2014). "Larry Ellison Is A Billionaire Today Thanks to the CIA". http://www.businessinsider.com/the-cia-made-larry-ellison-a-billionaire-2014-9?international=true&r=US&IR=T. 
  11. ↑ "How Oracle Got Started". July 6, 2021. https://financhill.com/blog/investing/how-oracle-got-started. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "The History of Oracle Corporation: 1977–2000". https://content.dsp.co.uk/the-history-of-oracle-corporation-1977-2000. 
  13. ↑ "Oracle debuts autonomous cloud database for data warehouse workloads". October 2, 2017. https://www.ciodive.com/news/oracle-debuts-autonomous-cloud-database-for-data-warehouse-workloads/506308/. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Oracle debuts autonomous cloud database for data warehouse workloads". October 2, 2017. https://www.ciodive.com/news/oracle-debuts-autonomous-cloud-database-for-data-warehouse-workloads/506308/. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (2021). Expert Oracle Database Architecture (4th ed.). Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-7498-9. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Malcher, Michelle; Kuhn, Darl (2024). Pro Oracle Database 23ai Administration. Apress. ISBN 979-8-8688-1037-4. 
  17. ↑ "Oracle converges the AI data stack to give enterprise agents a single version of truth". 25 March 2026. https://venturebeat.com/data/oracle-converges-the-ai-data-stack-to-give-enterprise-agents-a-single. 
  18. ↑ "Oracle System Properties". https://db-engines.com/en/system/Oracle. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Oracle renames Database 23c to 23ai, makes it generally available". May 2024. https://www.infoworld.com/article/2336977/oracle-renames-database-23c-to-23ai-makes-it-generally-available.html. 
  20. ↑ Klugt, Geert van der (2022-10-18). "Oracle combines relational databases and JSON in Oracle Database 23c" (in en). https://www.techzine.eu/news/devops/91789/oracle-combines-relational-databases-and-json-in-oracle-database-23c/. 
  21. ↑ Kumar, YV Ravi; Basha, Nassyam; K M, Krishna Kumar; Sharma, Bal Mukund; Kerekovski, Konstantin (2019). Oracle High Availability, Disaster Recovery, and Cloud Services: Explore RAC, Data Guard, and Cloud Technology. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-4351-0. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-high-availability/9781484243510/. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  22. ↑ Dyke, Julian; Shaw, Steve (2006). "Introduction to RAC". Pro Oracle Database 10g RAC on Linux. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-0214-1_1. ISBN 978-1-59059-524-4. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Baransel, Yunus Emre; Basha, Nassyam (2013). Oracle Data Guard 11gR2 Administration Beginner's Guide. Packt Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84968-790-4. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-data-guard/9781849687904/. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  24. ↑ Prusinski, Ben; Phillips, Steve; Chung, Richard (2011). "Heterogeneous Replication". Expert Oracle GoldenGate. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-3567-5_6. ISBN 978-1-4302-3566-8. 
  25. ↑ Freeman, Robert G.; Hart, Matthew (2009). "Surviving User Errors: Flashback Technologies". Oracle RMAN 11g Backup and Recovery. McGraw Hill Computing. ISBN 978-0-07-162860-0. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-rman-11g/9780071628600/. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  26. ↑ Adrian, Charlie (January 8, 2025). "Oracle Architecture Overview". Redgate Software. https://www.red-gate.com/simple-talk/databases/oracle-databases/oracle-architecture-overview/. 
  27. ↑ "Oracle AI Database 26ai for Linux x86-64 On-Premises Platforms Is Now Generally Available". February 4, 2026. https://www.dbta.com/Editorial/News-Flashes/Oracle-AI-Database-26ai-for-Linux-x86-64-On-Premises-Platforms-Is-Now-Generally-Available-173339.aspx. 
  28. ↑ Bach, Martin; Arao, Karl; Colvin, Andy; Hoogland, Frits; Johnson, Randy; Osborne, Kerry; Poder, Tanel (2015). "Offloading / Smart Scan". Expert Oracle Exadata (2nd ed.). Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-6242-8. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/expert-oracle-exadata/9781430262428/9781430262411_Ch02.xhtml. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  29. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Alapati, Sam R.; Padfield, Bill (2016). "In-Memory Column Store". Expert Oracle Indexing and Access Paths: Maximum Performance for Your Database. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-1984-3_10. ISBN 978-1-4842-1984-3. 
  30. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (November 2021). "Partitioning". Expert Oracle Database Architecture: Techniques and Solutions for High Performance and Productivity (4th ed.). Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7499-6_13. ISBN 978-1-4842-7499-6. 
  31. ↑ "Partitioning Techniques with Oracle Database 11g". https://www.dbta.com/Columns/Oracle-Data-Strategies/Partitioning-Techniques-with-Oracle-Database-11g-52092.aspx. 
  32. ↑ Kuhn, Darl; Kyte, Thomas (November 2021). "Parallel Execution". Expert Oracle Database Architecture: Techniques and Solutions for High Performance and Productivity (4th ed.). Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7499-6_14. ISBN 978-1-4842-7499-6. 
  33. ↑ Fitzjarrell, David (November 11, 2013). "Compression and Advanced Compression in Oracle 11.2". https://www.databasejournal.com/oracle/compression-and-advanced-compression-in-oracle-11-2/. 
  34. ↑ Clarke, John (2013). "Hybrid Columnar Compression". Oracle Exadata Recipes: A Problem-Solution Approach. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-4915-3_16. ISBN 978-1-4302-4914-6. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Certification Report – Oracle AI Database 26ai (Report). Swedish Certification Body for IT Security. December 17, 2025. https://www.commoncriteriaportal.org/nfs/ccpfiles/files/epfiles/Oracle%20AI%20Database%2026ai%20Certification%20Report.pdf. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  36. ↑ Gaetjen, Scott; Knox, David; Maroulis, William (2015). "Oracle Transparent Data Encryption: Securing for the Compliance Regulations, Cybersecurity, and Insider Threats". Oracle Database 12c Security. McGraw Hill Computing. ISBN 978-0-07-182428-6. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-database-12c/9780071824286/ch11.html. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Chowdhury, Asim (2025). "Security, Data Masking and Privilege Management". Oracle 23AI & ADBS in Action. Apress. doi:10.1007/979-8-8688-2068-7_9. ISBN 979-8-8688-2068-7. 
  38. ↑ Spendolini, Scott (2013). "Virtual Private Database". Expert Oracle Application Express Security. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-4731-9. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/expert-oracle-application/9781430247319/9781430247319_Ch12.xhtml. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  39. ↑ Gaetjen, Scott; Knox, David; Maroulis, William (2015). "Access Controls with Oracle Label Security". Oracle Database 12c Security. McGraw Hill Computing. ISBN 978-0-07-182428-6. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-database-12c/9780071824286/ch9.html. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  40. ↑ "Oracle Showcases its Deep Data Security Solution". July 2, 2026. https://www.dbta.com/Editorial/News-Flashes/Oracle-Showcases-its-Deep-Data-Security-Solution-175532.aspx. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Ghoshal, Anirban (May 2, 2024). "Oracle renames Database 23c to 23ai, makes it generally available". InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/2336977/oracle-renames-database-23c-to-23ai-makes-it-generally-available.html. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
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  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Ghoshal, Anirban (September 20, 2023). "Oracle's Database 23c gets vector search to underpin generative AI use cases". InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/2334861/oracle-s-database-23c-gets-vector-search-to-underpin-generative-ai-use-cases.html. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
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  45. ↑ Tierney, Brendan (2014). Predictive Analytics Using Oracle Data Miner. McGraw Hill Computing. ISBN 978-0-07-182167-4. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/predictive-analytics-using/9780071821674/. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
  46. ↑ Helskyaho, Heli; Yu, Jean; Yu, Kai (2021). Machine Learning for Oracle Database Professionals: Deploying Model-Driven Applications and Automation Pipelines. Apress. doi:10.1007/978-1-4842-7032-5. ISBN 978-1-4842-7031-8. 
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  48. ↑ Feuerstein, Steven; Pribyl, Bill; Dawes, Chip (2007). "Stored Procedures and Functions". Oracle PL/SQL Language Pocket Reference (4th ed.). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-51404-4. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/oracle-pl-sql-language/9780596514044/ch01s12.html. Retrieved July 7, 2026. 
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  63. ↑ "Announcing Oracle Database 23ai: General Availability" (in en). https://blogs.oracle.com/database/post/oracle-23ai-now-generally-available. 
  64. ↑ "Oracle Database 23c Free - Developer Release" (in en). https://www.oracle.com/database/free. 
  65. ↑ "Oracle Database 23c on OCI Base Database Service" (in en). https://blogs.oracle.com/database/post/oracle-database-23c-the-next-long-term-support-release. 
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  68. ↑ "Oracle Database 21c" (in en). https://docs.oracle.com/en/database/oracle/oracle-database/21/index.html. 
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  84. ↑ Gralike, Marco (2006-04-04). "Back to the future (Oracle 4.1 VM appliance)". https://technology.amis.nl/2006/04/04/back-to-the-future-oracle-41-vm-appliance/. 
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