Software:Windows NT

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Short description: Microsoft operating system family
Windows NT
Windows logo and wordmark - 2021.svg
DeveloperMicrosoft
Written inC, Assembly language
(core)
C++
(user mode applications, kernel graphical subsystem)
C#
(user mode applications)[1]
Working stateCurrent
Source model
Initial releaseJuly 27, 1993; 30 years ago (1993-07-27)
(as Windows NT 3.1)
|Final release|Latest release}}23H2 (10.0.22631.3085) (January 23, 2024; 5 months ago (2024-01-23)[2]) [±]
Update methodWindows Update, Windows Server Update Services
PlatformsIA-32, x86-64, ARM and ARM64 (and historically Intel i860, DEC Alpha, Itanium, MIPS, and PowerPC)
Kernel typeHybrid [citation needed] (NT)
Influenced byRSX-11, VAXELN, OpenVMS, MICA, Mach (kernel)
MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows 3.1x (userland)
Default user interfaceGraphical (Windows shell)
LicenseDepending on version, edition or customer choice: Trialware, commercial software, volume licensing, OEM-only, SaaS, S+S[lower-alpha 1]
Official websitewww.microsoft.com/windows

Windows NT is a proprietary graphical operating system produced by Microsoft as part of its Windows product line, the first version of which was released on July 27, 1993, and it lives on today since the latest version of Windows, 11, includes its technology.

Windows NT also denotes major technology advancements that it introduced to the Windows product line including eliminated the 16-bit memory access limitations of earlier Windows releases. Each Windows release that includes its technology is considered to be based on if not a revision of Windows NT even though the Windows NT name has not been used since 1996.

Windows NT provides many features including:

  • multi-user
  • pure 32-bit memory access -- earlier, consumer-oriented versions, Windows 3.1x and Windows 9x, were 16-bit/32-bit hybrids

Product line

Windows NT is a group or family of products -- like Windows is a group or family. Windows NT is a sub-grouping of Windows.

The first version of Windows NT, 3.1, was produced for workstation and server computers. It was commercially focused -- intended to complement consumer versions of Windows that were based on MS-DOS (including Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.1x). In 1996, Windows NT 4.0 was released, including the new shell from Windows 95.

Eventually, Microsoft incorporated the Windows NT technology into the Windows product line for personal computing and deprecated the Windows 9x family. Starting with Windows 2000,[3] "NT" was removed from the product name yet is still in several low-level places in the system -- including for a while as part of the product version.[4]

Installing

Versions of Windows NT are installed using Windows Setup, which, starting with Windows Vista, uses the Windows Preinstallation Environment, which is a lightweight version of Windows NT made for deployment of the operating system.

Naming

It has been suggested that Dave Cutler intended the initialism "WNT" as a play on VMS, incrementing each letter by one.[5] However, the project was originally intended as a follow-on to OS/2 and was referred to as "NT OS/2" before receiving the Windows brand.[6] One of the original NT developers, Mark Lucovsky, states that the name was taken from the original target processor—the Intel i860, code-named N10 ("N-Ten").[7] A 1998 question-and-answer (Q&A) session with Bill Gates revealed that the letters were previously expanded to "New Technology" but no longer carry any specific meaning.[8] The letters were dropped from the names of releases from Windows 2000 and later, though Microsoft described that product as being "Built on NT Technology".[3][9]

"NT" was a trademark of Northern Telecom (later Nortel), which Microsoft was forced to acknowledge on the product packaging.

Major features

One of the main purposes of NT is hardware and software portability. Various versions of NT family operating systems have been released for a variety of processor architectures, initially IA-32, MIPS, and DEC Alpha, with PowerPC, Itanium, x86-64 and ARM supported in later releases. An initial idea was to have a common code base with a custom Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) for each platform. However, support for MIPS, Alpha, and PowerPC was later dropped in Windows 2000. Broad software compatibility was initially achieved with support for several API "personalities", including Windows API, POSIX,[10] and OS/2 APIs[11] – the latter two were phased out starting with Windows XP.[12] Partial MS-DOS and Windows 16-bit compatibility is achieved on IA-32 via an integrated DOS Virtual Machine – although this feature is not available on other architectures.[13]

NT has supported per-object (file, function, and role) access control lists allowing a rich set of security permissions to be applied to systems and services. NT has also supported Windows network protocols, inheriting the previous OS/2 LAN Manager networking, as well as TCP/IP networking (for which Microsoft used to implement a TCP/IP stack derived at first from a STREAMS-based stack from Spider Systems, then later rewritten in-house).[14]

Windows NT 3.1 was the first version of Windows to use 32-bit flat virtual memory addressing on 32-bit processors. Its companion product, Windows 3.1, used segmented addressing and switches from 16-bit to 32-bit addressing in pages.

Windows NT 3.1 featured a core kernel providing a system API, running in supervisor mode (ring 0 in x86; referred to in Windows NT as "kernel mode" on all platforms), and a set of user-space environments with their own APIs which included the new Win32 environment, an OS/2 1.3 text-mode environment and a POSIX environment. The full preemptive multitasking kernel could interrupt running tasks to schedule other tasks, without relying on user programs to voluntarily give up control of the CPU, as in Windows 3.1 Windows applications (although MS-DOS applications were preemptively multitasked in Windows starting with Windows/386).

Notably, in Windows NT 3.x, several I/O driver subsystems, such as video and printing, were user-mode subsystems. In Windows NT 4, the video, server, and printer spooler subsystems were moved into kernel mode. Windows NT's first GUI was strongly influenced by (and programmatically compatible with) that from Windows 3.1; Windows NT 4's interface was redesigned to match that of the brand-new Windows 95, moving from the Program Manager to the Windows shell design.

NTFS, a journaled, secure file system, is a major feature of NT. Windows NT also allows for other installable file systems; NT can also be installed on FAT file systems, and versions 3.1, 3.5, and 3.51 could be installed HPFS file systems.[15]

Windows NT introduced its own driver model, the Windows NT driver model, and is incompatible with older driver frameworks. With Windows 2000, the Windows NT driver model was enhanced to become the Windows Driver Model, which was first introduced with Windows 98, but was based on the NT driver model.[16] Windows Vista added native support for the Windows Driver Foundation, which is also available for Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 and to an extent, Windows 2000.

Development

Original Windows NT wordmark

Microsoft decided to create a portable operating system, compatible with OS/2 and POSIX and supporting multiprocessing, in October 1988.[17] When development started in November 1989, Windows NT was to be known as OS/2 3.0,[18] the third version of the operating system developed jointly by Microsoft and IBM. To ensure portability, initial development was targeted at the Intel i860XR RISC processor, switching to the MIPS R3000 in late 1989, and then the Intel i386 in 1990.[7] Microsoft also continued parallel development of the DOS-based and less resource-demanding Windows environment, resulting in the release of Windows 3.0 in May 1990.

Windows 3.0 was eventually so successful that Microsoft decided to change the primary application programming interface for the still unreleased NT OS/2 (as it was then known) from an extended OS/2 API to an extended Windows API. This decision caused tension between Microsoft and IBM and the collaboration ultimately fell apart.

IBM continued OS/2 development alone while Microsoft continued work on the newly renamed Windows NT. Though neither operating system would immediately be as popular as Microsoft's MS-DOS or Windows products, Windows NT would eventually be far more successful than OS/2.

Microsoft hired a group of developers from Digital Equipment Corporation led by Dave Cutler to build Windows NT, and many elements of the design reflect earlier DEC experience with Cutler's VMS,[19] VAXELN and RSX-11, but also an unreleased object-based operating system developed by Cutler at Digital codenamed MICA.[20] The team was joined by selected members of the disbanded OS/2 team, including Moshe Dunie.[5]

Windows 2000 architecture

The VMS kernel was primarily written in VAX MACRO, but Windows NT was designed to run on multiple instruction set architectures and multiple hardware platforms within each architecture. The platform dependencies are hidden from the rest of the system by the HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer).

Mark Russinovich wrote in 1998 that while creating Windows NT, Microsoft developers rewrote VMS in C. Although they added the Win32 API, NTFS file system, GUI, and backwards compatibility with DOS, OS/2, and Win16, DEC engineers almost immediately noticed the two operating systems' internal similarities; parts of VAX/VMS Internals and Data Structures, published by Digital Press, accurately describe Windows NT internals using VMS terms. Instead of a lawsuit, Microsoft agreed to pay DEC $65–100 million, help market VMS, train Digital personnel on Windows NT, and continue Windows NT support for the DEC Alpha.[19]

Windows NT and VMS memory management, processes, and scheduling are very similar. Windows NT's process management differs by implementing threading, which DEC did not implement until VMS 7.0 in 1995, likely to compete with Microsoft.

Like VMS,[19] Windows NT's kernel mode code distinguishes between the "kernel", whose primary purpose is to implement processor- and architecture-dependent functions, and the "executive". This was designed as a modified microkernel, as the Windows NT kernel was influenced by the Mach microkernel developed by Richard Rashid at Carnegie Mellon University,[21] but does not meet all of the criteria of a pure microkernel. Both the kernel and the executive are linked together into the single loaded module ntoskrnl.exe; from outside this module, there is little distinction between the kernel and the executive. Routines from each are directly accessible, as for example from kernel-mode device drivers.

API sets in the Windows NT family are implemented as subsystems atop the publicly undocumented "native" API; this allowed the late adoption of the Windows API (into the Win32 subsystem). Windows NT was one of the earliest operating systems to use Unicode internally.[citation needed]

Architecture

Windows NT uses a layered design architecture that consists of two main components, user mode and kernel mode. Programs and subsystems in user mode are limited in terms of what system resources they have access to, while the kernel mode has unrestricted access to the system memory and external devices. Kernel mode in Windows NT has full access to the hardware and system resources of the computer. The Windows NT kernel is a hybrid kernel; the architecture comprises a simple kernel, hardware abstraction layer (HAL), drivers, and a range of services (collectively named Executive), which all exist in kernel mode.[22]

The booting process of Windows NT begins with NTLDR in versions before Vista and the Windows Boot Manager in Vista and later.[23] The boot loader is responsible for accessing the file system on the boot drive, starting the kernel, and loading boot-time device drivers into memory. Once all the boot and system drivers have been loaded, the kernel starts the Session Manager Subsystem. This process launches winlogon, which allows the user to login. Once the user is logged in File Explorer is started, loading the graphical user interface of Windows NT.

Programming language

Windows NT is written in C and C++, with a very small amount written in assembly language.[24] C is mostly used for the kernel code while C++ is mostly used for user-mode code. Assembly language is avoided where possible because it would impede portability.[25]

Releases

The following are the releases of Windows based on the Windows NT technology.

Windows NT releases
Version Marketing name Editions Release date Build number
3.1 Windows NT 3.1 Workstation (named just Windows NT), Advanced Server July 27, 1993 528
3.5 Windows NT 3.5 Workstation, Server September 21, 1994 807
3.51 Windows NT 3.51 May 30, 1995 1057
4.0 Windows NT 4.0 Workstation, Server, Enterprise Server, Terminal Server, Embedded August 24, 1996 1381
5.0[26] Windows 2000 Professional, Server, Advanced Server February 17, 2000 2195
Datacenter Server September 26, 2000
5.1[26] Windows XP Home, Professional, Media Center (original, 2004 & 2005), Tablet PC (original and 2005), Starter, Embedded, Home N, Professional N October 25, 2001 2600
Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs N/A July 8, 2006
5.2[26] Windows XP 64-bit Edition Version 2003 (IA-64)[27] March 28, 2003 3790
Windows Server 2003 Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web, Storage, Small Business Server, Compute Cluster April 24, 2003
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition (x86-64) April 25, 2005
Windows Server 2003 R2 Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web, Storage, Small Business Server, Compute Cluster December 6, 2005
Windows Home Server N/A November 4, 2007
6.0[26] Windows Vista Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, Enterprise, Ultimate Business: November 30, 2006
Consumer: January 30, 2007
Windows Server 2008 Foundation, Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web Server, HPC Server, Itanium-Based Systems[28] February 27, 2008 6001 (RTM)
6002 (SP2)
6003 (SP2 Update)[29]
6.1[26] Windows 7 Starter, Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise, Ultimate[30] October 22, 2009[31] 7600 (RTM)
7601 (SP1)
Windows Server 2008 R2 Foundation, Standard, Enterprise, Datacenter, Web Server, HPC Server, Itanium-Based Systems
Windows Home Server 2011 Home Server Premium April 6, 2011 7601 (SP1)
Windows Thin PC N/A June 6, 2011
6.2[26] Windows 8[32] Windows 8, Windows 8 Pro, Windows 8 Enterprise, Windows RT[33] October 26, 2012[34] 9200
Windows Server 2012[35] Foundation, Essentials, Standard, Datacenter[36] September 4, 2012
6.3[26] Windows 8.1 Windows 8.1, Windows 8.1 Pro, Windows 8.1 Enterprise, Windows RT 8.1, Windows Embedded 8.1 Industry Pro/Enterprise October 18, 2013 9600[37]
Windows Server 2012 R2 Foundation, Essentials, Standard, Datacenter
10.0[26][38] Windows 10 Home Single Language, Home China, Home, Pro, Pro Education, Pro for Workstations,[39] Enterprise, Education, Windows 10 S, IoT Core, Mobile, Mobile Enterprise[40][41] July 29, 2015 10240 (1507/RTM)
10586 (1511)
14393 (1607)
15063 (1703)
16299 (1709)
17134 (1803)
17763 (1809)
18362 (1903)
18363 (1909)
19041 (2004)
19042 (20H2)
19043 (21H1)
19044 (21H2)
19045 (22H2)
Windows Server 2016 Essentials, Standard, Datacenter, Multipoint Premium Server, Storage Server, Hyper-V Server September 26, 2016 14393
Windows Server 2019 Essentials, Standard, Datacenter, Multipoint Premium Server, Hyper-V Server October 2, 2018 17763
Windows Server 2022 August 18, 2021[42] 20348
Windows 11 Home Single Language, Home China, Home, Pro, Education, Pro Education, Pro for Workstations, Enterprise, IoT Enterprise, Windows 11 SE October 5, 2021[43] 22000 (21H2/RTM)
22621 (22H2)
22631 (23H2)

Windows NT 3.1 to 3.51 incorporated the Program Manager and File Manager from the Windows 3.1x series. Windows NT 4.0 onwards replaced those programs with Windows Explorer (including a taskbar and Start menu), which originally appeared in Windows 95.

The first release was given version number 3.1 to match the contemporary 16-bit Windows; magazines of that era claimed the number was also used to make that version seem more reliable than a ".0" release. Also the Novell IPX protocol was apparently licensed only to 3.1 versions of Windows software.[citation needed]

The NT version number is not now generally used for marketing purposes, but is still used internally, and said to reflect the degree of changes to the core of the operating system.[44] However, for application compatibility reasons, Microsoft kept the major version number as 6 in releases following Vista,[45] but changed it later to 10 in Windows 10.[38] The build number is an internal identifier used by Microsoft's developers and beta testers.

Starting with Windows 8.1, Microsoft changed the Version API Helper functions' behavior. If an application is not manifested for Windows 8.1 or later, the API will always return version 6.2, which is the version number of Windows 8.[46][47] This is because the manifest feature was introduced with Windows 8.1,[48] to replace GetVersion and related functions.[49]

Supported platforms

32-bit platforms

In order to prevent Intel x86-specific code from slipping into the operating system, due to developers being used to developing on x86 chips, Windows NT 3.1 was initially developed using non-x86 development systems and then ported to the x86 architecture. This work was initially based on the Intel i860-based Dazzle system and, later, the MIPS R4000-based Jazz platform. Both systems were designed internally at Microsoft.[50]

Windows NT 3.1 was released for Intel x86 PC compatible and PC-98 platforms, and for DEC Alpha and ARC-compliant MIPS platforms. Windows NT 3.51 added support for the PowerPC processor in 1995, specifically PReP-compliant systems such as the IBM ThinkPad Power Series laptops and Motorola PowerStack series; but despite meetings between Michael Spindler and Bill Gates, not on the Power Macintosh as the PReP compliant Power Macintosh project failed to ship.

Intergraph Corporation ported Windows NT to its Clipper architecture and later announced an intention to port Windows NT 3.51 to Sun Microsystems' SPARC architecture,[51] in conjunction with the company's planned introduction of UltraSPARC models in 1995,[52] but neither version was sold to the public as a retail product.

Only two of the Windows NT 4.0 variants (IA-32 and Alpha) have a full set of service packs available. All of the other ports done by third parties (Motorola, Intergraph, etc.) have few, if any, publicly available updates.

Windows NT 4.0 was the last major release to support Alpha, MIPS, or PowerPC, though development of Windows 2000 for Alpha continued until August 1999, when Compaq stopped support for Windows NT on that architecture; and then three days later Microsoft also canceled their AlphaNT program,[53] even though the Alpha NT 5 (Windows 2000) release had reached RC1 status.[54]

On January 5, 2011, Microsoft announced that the next major version of the Windows NT family will include support for the ARM architecture. Microsoft demonstrated a preliminary version of Windows (version 6.2.7867) running on an ARM-based computer at the 2011 Consumer Electronics Show.[55] This eventually led to the commercial release of the Windows 8-derived Windows RT on October 26, 2012, and the use of Windows NT, rather than Windows CE, in Windows Phone 8.

According to Microsoft, it is a common misconception that the Xbox and Xbox 360 use a modified Windows 2000 kernel. In reality, the Xbox operating system was built from scratch but implements a subset of Windows APIs.[56] The Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S, however, do use a modified version of Windows 10.[57]

Windows 11 is the first non-server version of Windows NT that does not support 32-bit platforms.[58][59]

64-bit platforms

The 64-bit versions of Windows NT were originally intended to run on Itanium and DEC Alpha; the latter was used internally at Microsoft during early development of 64-bit Windows.[60][61] This continued for some time after Microsoft publicly announced that it was cancelling plans to ship 64-bit Windows for Alpha.[62] Because of this, Alpha versions of Windows NT are 32-bit only.

While Windows 2000 only supports Intel IA-32 (32-bit), Windows XP, Server 2003, Server 2008 and Server 2008 R2 each have one edition dedicated to Itanium-based systems.[63][64][65] In comparison with Itanium, Microsoft adopted x64 on a greater scale: every version of Windows since Windows XP (which has a dedicated x64 edition)[66] has x64 editions.[63][67]

The first version of Windows NT to support ARM64 devices with Qualcomm processors was Windows 10, version 1709.[68] This is a full version of Windows, rather than the cut-down Windows RT.

Hardware requirements

The minimum hardware specification required to run each release of the professional workstation version of Windows NT has been fairly slow-moving until the 6.0 Vista release, which requires a minimum of 15 GB of free disk space, a tenfold increase in free disk space alone over the previous version.

Windows NT minimum hardware requirements
Windows version CPU RAM Free disk space
NT 3.1[69] i386, 25 MHz 12 MB 90 MB
NT 3.1 Advanced Server[69] 16 MB
NT 3.5 Workstation[70] 12 MB
NT 3.5 Server[70] 16 MB
NT 3.51 Workstation[70] 12 MB
NT 3.51 Server[70] 16 MB
NT 4.0 Workstation[71] i486, 25 MHz 12 MB 124 MB
NT 4.0 Server[71] 16 MB
2000 Professional[72] Pentium, 133 MHz 32 MB 650 MB
2000 Server[72] 128 MB
XP[73] Pentium, 233 MHz 64 MB 1.5 GB
Server 2003[74] 133 MHz 128 MB
Vista Home Basic[75] 800 MHz 512 MB 20 GB
Vista (other editions)[75] 1 GHz 1 GB 40 GB
7 for IA-32[76] 16 GB
7 for x64[76] 2 GB 20 GB
8 for IA-32[77] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 16 GB
8 for x64[77] 2 GB 20 GB
8.1 for IA-32[77] 1 GB 16 GB
8.1 for x64[77] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE, CMPXCHG16b, PrefetchW and LAHF/SAHF 2 GB 20 GB
10 for IA-32 (v1507-1809)[78] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 16 GB
10 for x64 (v1507-1809)[78] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE, CMPXCHG16b, PrefetchW and LAHF/SAHF 2 GB 20 GB
10 for IA-32 (v1903 and later)[78] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE 1 GB 32 GB
10 for x64 (v1903 and later)[78] 1 GHz with NX bit, SSE2, PAE, CMPXCHG16b, PrefetchW and LAHF/SAHF 2 GB
11 for x64[58][59] Intel 8th-Gen CPU or AMD Zen+-based CPU; Trusted Platform Module (TPM) 2.0 or equivalent crypto-processor[79] 4 GB 64 GB
11 for ARM64[58][59] Qualcomm Snapdragon 850, 7c, 8c, 8cx; Microsoft SQ1, SQ2

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ For more information on how Microsoft licenses its products, see Microsoft Software Assurance, DreamSpark, DreamSpark Premium, BizSpark, MSDN § Software subscriptions, Microsoft TechNet § Subscriptions and downloads, and client access license.
  2. ↑ Though Windows Vista support ended in 2017 and there was never a third Service Pack, the build number change occurs when the user opts to install KB4489887 update (released for Windows Server 2008 in 2019) on their system.

References

  1. ↑ Lextrait, Vincent (January 2010). "The Programming Languages Beacon". http://www.lextrait.com/Vincent/implementations.html. 
  2. ↑ "January 23, 2024—KB50341204 (OS Builds 22621.3085 and 22631.3085) Preview". Microsoft Support. Software:Microsoft. https://support.microsoft.com/help/5034204. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Microsoft Renames Windows NT 5.0 Product Line to Windows 2000; Signals Evolution of Windows NT Technology Into Mainstream" (Press release). Microsoft. October 27, 1998.
  4. ↑ "OperatingSystem.VersionString Property". Microsoft. https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/vstudio/system.operatingsystem.versionstring%28v=vs.100%29.aspx. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Zachary, G Pascal (1994). Show Stopper!: The Breakneck Race to Create Windows NT and the Next Generation at Microsoft. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-02-935671-5. https://archive.org/details/showstopperbreak00zach. 
  6. ↑ "Microsoft Windows NT OS/2 Design Workbook". American history. Smithsonian. http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_742559. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Thurrott, Paul (January 24, 2003). "Windows Server 2003: The Road To Gold". https://www.itprotoday.com/windows-server/windows-server-2003-road-gold-part-one-early-years. 
  8. ↑ Gates, Bill (June 5, 1998). "Q&A: Protecting children from information on the Internet". http://www.microsoft.com/billgates/columns/1998q&a/QA5-6.asp. 
  9. ↑ "Windows 2000 is a name that reflects NT's continued move to the technology mainstream". Microsoft. October 27, 1998. http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/1998/10-27winma.mspx. 
  10. ↑ "Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows". Win super site. http://www.winsupersite.com/showcase/winvista_ff_x64.asp. 
  11. ↑ "28 – OS/2 Compatibility", MS Windows NT 4 Workstation, Microsoft, http://www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windowsnt/4/workstation/reskit/en-us/os2comp.mspx?mfr=true, retrieved November 24, 2010 
  12. ↑ "POSIX and OS/2 are not supported in Windows XP or in Windows Server 2003". Support. Microsoft. November 5, 2007. http://support.microsoft.com/kb/308259. 
  13. ↑ "x64 editions deployment". http://download.microsoft.com/download/8/1/e/81eabaf4-1907-4967-87a9-be242b1402e9/x64_Editions_Deployment.doc. 
  14. ↑ Barr, Adam (June 19, 2001). "Microsoft, TCP/IP, Open Source, and Licensing". http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2001/6/19/05641/7357. 
  15. ↑ "Overview of FAT, HPFS, and NTFS File Systems". Microsoft. September 23, 2021. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/troubleshoot/windows-client/backup-and-storage/fat-hpfs-and-ntfs-file-systems. 
  16. ↑ "NT Drivers – FAQ – WDM". http://www.cmkrnl.com/faq02.html. 
  17. ↑ Cutler, Dave (2005), "Preface", in Russinovich, Mark; Solomon, David A, Microsoft Windows Internals (fourth ed.), Microsoft Press, ISBN 0-7356-1917-4, https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780735619173 .
  18. ↑ Pollack, Andrew (July 27, 1991). "Microsoft Widens Its Split With IBM Over Software". https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE0D81339F934A15754C0A967958260. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Russinovich, Mark (November 30, 1998). "Windows NT and VMS: The Rest of the Story". http://www.itprotoday.com/windows-client/windows-nt-and-vms-rest-story. 
  20. ↑ Neil Rieck. "'Windows-NT' is 'VMS Reimplemented' (sort of)". http://neilrieck.net/docs/Windows-NT_is_VMS_re-implemented.html. 
  21. ↑ Mohr, Jim (December 1, 1999). "Windows NT Basics". Supporting Windows NT and 2000 Workstation and Server. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-083068-5. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc768132(v=technet.10). Retrieved November 29, 2023. "The technique that Windows NT uses is called a 'microkernel' and was influenced by the Mach microkernel developed at Carnegie Mellon University." 
  22. ↑ Finnel, Lynn (2000). MCSE Exam 70-215, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server. Microsoft Press. Chapter 1: Introduction to Microsoft Windows 2000, pp. 7–18. ISBN 1-57231-903-8. 
  23. ↑ "Boot Sequence of Windows Multi-Boot - Multibooters.com". http://www.multibooters.com/guides/boot-sequence-of-mixed-windows-multiboot.html. 
  24. ↑ "Windows NT System Overview". Microsoft. February 20, 2014. https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/previous-versions/cc767881(v=technet.10). 
  25. ↑ Chen, Raymond (September 28, 2016). One Dev Question with Raymond Chen – What Programming Language is Windows Written In?. Microsoft Learn. Microsoft. Retrieved October 15, 2022.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 "Operating System Version". Microsoft Docs. Microsoft. September 15, 2020. https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/sysinfo/operating-system-version. 
  27. ↑ "Microsoft Releases Windows XP 64-Bit Edition Version 2003 to Manufacturing". March 2003. http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2003/mar03/03-28WinXP64BitPR.mspx. 
  28. ↑ "Overview of Editions". Windows Server 2008. Microsoft. http://www.microsoft.com/windowsserver2008/en/us/editions-overview.aspx. 
  29. ↑ "Build number changing to 6003 in Windows Server 2008". https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/4495374/build-number-changing-to-6003-in-windows-server-2008. 
  30. ↑ LeBlanc, Brandon (February 4, 2009). "A closer look at the Windows 7 SKUs". Blogging Windows. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/blogs/windows7/archive/2009/02/04/a-closer-look-at-the-windows-7-skus.aspx. 
  31. ↑ Rothman, Wilson (June 2, 2009). "Windows 7 To Be Released October 22". Gizmodo. https://gizmodo.com/5275938/windows-7-to-be-released-october-22. 
  32. ↑ "Windows", Developer network, Microsoft, http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/apps/br229516 
  33. ↑ LeBlanc, Brandon (April 16, 2012). "Announcing the Windows 8 Editions". Blogging Windows. Microsoft. http://windowsteamblog.com/windows/b/bloggingwindows/archive/2012/04/16/announcing-the-windows-8-editions.aspx. 
  34. ↑ "Windows 8 will be available on…". Microsoft. July 18, 2012. http://windowsteamblog.com/windows/b/bloggingwindows/archive/2012/07/18/windows-8-will-be-available-on.aspx. 
  35. ↑ "Windows server 8 named Windows server 2012", Windows valley, http://www.windowsvalley.com/windows-server-8-named-windows-server-2012, retrieved June 10, 2012 .
  36. ↑ "Windows Server 2012 Editions". Server cloud. http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/server-cloud/windows-server/2012-editions.aspx. 
  37. ↑ Warren, Tom (August 24, 2013). "Windows 8.1 is ready for its October 17th release". The Verge. Vox Media. https://www.theverge.com/2013/8/24/4652054/microsoft-windows-8-1-rtm. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Thurrott, Paul (November 22, 2014). "Microsoft Confirms that Windows 10 will also be Version 10 Internally". Informa. https://www.itprotoday.com/windows-server/microsoft-confirms-windows-10-will-also-be-version-10-internally. 
  39. ↑ Pidgeon, Elana (August 10, 2017). "Microsoft announces Windows 10 Pro for Workstations" (in en-US). https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/blog/2017/08/10/microsoft-announces-windows-10-pro-workstations. 
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  41. ↑ Foley, Mary Jo (July 27, 2016). "Microsoft to add new Windows 10 Pro Education edition to its line-up". CBS Interactive. http://www.zdnet.com/article/microsoft-to-add-new-windows-10-pro-education-version-to-its-line-up. 
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