Biology:Flamingo

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Short description: Family of birds

Flamingos
Temporal range: 25–0 Ma
Late Oligocene – Recent
Flamingos Laguna Colorada.jpg
James's flamingos (P. jamesi)
Scientific classification e
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Phoenicopteriformes
Family: Phoenicopteridae
Bonaparte, 1831
Genera
Flamingo range.png
Global distribution of flamingos

Flamingos or flamingoes[lower-alpha 1] /fləˈmɪŋɡoʊz/ are a type of wading bird in the family Phoenicopteridae, which is the only extant family in the order Phoenicopteriformes. There are four flamingo species distributed throughout the Americas (including the Caribbean), and two species native to Afro-Eurasia.

A group of flamingoes is called a "flamboyance".[2]

Etymology

File:Greaterflamingo-uenozoo2008.ogg

The name flamingo comes from Portuguese or Spanish flamengo ("flame-colored"), which in turn comes from Provençal flamenc – a combination of flama ("flame") and a Germanic-like suffix -ing. The word may also have been influenced by the Spanish ethnonym flamenco ("Fleming" or "Flemish"). The name of the genus, Phoenicopterus, is from the Greek φοινικόπτερος phoinikopteros, lit. crimson/red-feathered);[3] other genera names include Phoeniconaias, which means "crimson/red water nymph (or naiad)", and Phoenicoparrus, which means "crimson/red bird (though, an unknown bird of omen)".

Taxonomy and systematics

The family Phoenicopteridae was introduced by the French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831, with Phoenicopterus as the type genus.[4][5]

Traditionally, the long-legged Ciconiiformes, probably a paraphyletic assemblage, have been considered the flamingos' closest relatives and the family was included in the order. Usually, the ibises and spoonbills of the Threskiornithidae were considered their closest relatives within this order. Earlier genetic studies, such as those of Charles Sibley and colleagues, also supported this relationship.[6] Relationships to the waterfowl were considered as well,[7] especially as flamingos are parasitized by feather lice of the genus Anaticola, which are otherwise exclusively found on ducks and geese.[8] The peculiar presbyornithids were used to argue for a close relationship between flamingos, waterfowl, and waders.[9] A 2002 paper concluded they are waterfowl,[10] but a 2014 comprehensive study of bird orders found that flamingos and grebes are not waterfowl, but rather are part of Columbea, along with doves, sandgrouse, and mesites.[11]

Relationship with grebes

Many molecular and morphological studies support a relationship between grebes and flamingos.

Recent molecular studies have suggested a relation with grebes,[12][13][14] while morphological evidence also strongly supports a relationship between flamingos and grebes. They hold at least 11 morphological traits in common, which are not found in other birds. Many of these characteristics have been previously identified on flamingos, but not on grebes.[15] The fossil palaelodids can be considered evolutionarily, and ecologically, intermediate between flamingos and grebes.[16]

For the grebe-flamingo clade, the taxon Mirandornithes ("miraculous birds" due to their extreme divergence and apomorphies) has been proposed. Alternatively, they could be placed in one order, with Phoenocopteriformes taking priority.[16]

Phylogeny

Living flamingos:[17]

 
Phoenicopterus
 

P. chilensis (Chilean flamingo)

 
 
 

P. roseus (Greater flamingo)

 
 

P. ruber (American flamingo)

 
 
 
 
 

Phoeniconaias minor (Lesser flamingo)

 
Phoenicoparrus
 

P. andinus (Andean flamingo)

 
 

P. jamesi (James's flamingo)

 
 
 
 

Species

Six extant flamingo species are recognized by most sources, and were formerly placed in one genus (have common characteristics) – Phoenicopterus. As a result of a 2014 publication,[18] the family was reclassified into two genera.[19] In 2020, the family had three recognized genera, according to HBW.[20]

Image Species Geographic location
Flamant rose Salines de Thyna.jpg Greater flamingo
(Phoenicopterus roseus) 		Old World Parts of Africa, S. Europe and S. and SW Asia (most widespread flamingo).
Lesser Flamingo RWD.jpg Lesser flamingo
(Phoeniconaias minor) 		Africa (e.g. Great Rift Valley) to NW India (most numerous flamingo).
Westfalenpark-100821-17767-Flamingo.jpg Chilean flamingo
(Phoenicopterus chilensis) 		New World Temperate S. South America.
James Flamingo.jpg James's flamingo
(Phoenicoparrus jamesi) 		High Andes in Peru, Chile , Bolivia and Argentina .
Two andeanflamingo june2003 arp.jpg Andean flamingo
(Phoenicoparrus andinus) 		High Andes in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina.
Greater flamingo galapagos.JPG American flamingo
(Phoenicopterus ruber) 		Caribbean islands, Caribbean Mexico, southern Florida,[21] Belize, coastal Colombia, northern Brazil , Venezuela and Galápagos Islands.

Prehistoric species of flamingo:

Description

Flamingos usually stand on one leg with the other tucked beneath the body. The reason for this behaviour is not fully understood. One theory is that standing on one leg allows the birds to conserve more body heat, given that they spend a significant amount of time wading in cold water.[31] However, the behaviour also takes place in warm water and is also observed in birds that do not typically stand in water. An alternative theory is that standing on one leg reduces the energy expenditure for producing muscular effort to stand and balance on one leg. A study on cadavers showed that the one-legged pose could be held without any muscle activity, while living flamingos demonstrate substantially less body sway in a one-legged posture.[32] As well as standing in the water, flamingos may stamp their webbed feet in the mud to stir up food from the bottom.[33]

Flamingos are capable flyers, and flamingos in captivity often require wing clipping to prevent escape. A pair of African flamingos which had not yet had their wings clipped escaped from the Wichita, Kansas, zoo in 2005. One was spotted in Texas 14 years later. It had been seen previously by birders in Texas, Wisconsin and Louisiana.[34]

American and Chilean flamingos in captivity
Flamingos in flight at Río Lagartos, Yucatán, Mexico

Young flamingos hatch with grayish-red plumage, but adults range from light pink to bright red due to aqueous bacteria and beta-carotene obtained from their food supply. A well-fed, healthy flamingo is more vibrantly colored, thus a more desirable mate; a white or pale flamingo, however, is usually unhealthy or malnourished. Captive flamingos are a notable exception; even if adequately nourished, they may turn a pale pink if they are not fed carotene at levels comparable to the wild.[35]

The greater flamingo is the tallest of the six different species of flamingos, standing at 3.9 to 4.7 feet (1.2 to 1.4 m) with a weight up to 7.7 pounds (3.5 kg), and the shortest flamingo species (the lesser) has a height of 2.6 feet (0.8 m) and weighs 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg). Flamingos can have a wingspan as small as 37 inches (94 cm) to as big as 59 inches (150 cm).[36]

Flamingos can open their bills by raising the upper jaw as well as by dropping the lower. [37]

Behavior and ecology

Feeding

File:Caribbean Flamingo vocalization.webm

American flamingo and offspring: The arcuate (curved) bill is adapted to bottom scooping.

Flamingos filter-feed on brine shrimp and blue-green algae as well as insect larvae, small insects, mollusks and crustaceans, making them omnivores. Their bills are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they eat, and are uniquely used upside-down. The filtering of food items is assisted by hairy structures called lamellae, which line the mandibles, and the large, rough-surfaced tongue. The pink or reddish color of flamingos comes from carotenoids in their diet of animal and plant plankton. American flamingos are a brighter red color because of the beta carotene availability in their food while the lesser flamingos are a paler pink due to ingesting a smaller amount of this pigment. These carotenoids are broken down into pigments by liver enzymes.[38] The source of this varies by species, and affects the color saturation. Flamingos whose sole diet is blue-green algae are darker than those that get it second-hand by eating animals that have digested blue-green algae.[39]

Vocalization sounds

Flamingos are considered very noisy birds with their noises and vocalizations ranging from grunting or growling to nasal honking. Vocalizations play an important role in parent-chick recognition, ritualized displays, and keeping large flocks together. Variations in vocalizations exist in the voices of different species of flamingos.[40][41]

Life cycle

Chilean flamingo feeding its young
Colony of lesser flamingos at Lake Nakuru

Flamingos are very social birds; they live in colonies whose population can number in the thousands. These large colonies are believed to serve three purposes for the flamingos: avoiding predators, maximizing food intake, and using scarce suitable nesting sites more efficiently.[42] Before breeding, flamingo colonies split into breeding groups of about 15 to 50 birds. Both males and females in these groups perform synchronized ritual displays.[43] The members of a group stand together and display to each other by stretching their necks upwards, then uttering calls while head-flagging, and then flapping their wings.[44] The displays do not seem directed towards an individual, but occur randomly.[44] These displays stimulate "synchronous nesting" (see below) and help pair up those birds that do not already have mates.[43]

Flamingos form strong pair bonds, although in larger colonies, flamingos sometimes change mates, presumably because more mates are available to choose.[45] Flamingo pairs establish and defend nesting territories. They locate a suitable spot on the mudflat to build a nest (the female usually selects the place).[44] Copulation usually occurs during nest building, which is sometimes interrupted by another flamingo pair trying to commandeer the nesting site for their use. Flamingos aggressively defend their nesting sites. Both the male and the female contribute to building the nest, and to protecting the nest and egg.[46] Same-sex pairs have been reported.[47]

After the chicks hatch, the only parental expense is feeding.[48] Both the male and the female feed their chicks with a kind of crop milk, produced in glands lining the whole of the upper digestive tract (not just the crop). The hormone prolactin stimulates production. Crop milk contains both fat and protein, as with mammalian milk, but unlike mammalian milk, it contains no carbohydrates.[49] (Pigeons and doves—Columbidae—also produce crop milk (just in the glands lining the crop), which contains less fat and more protein than flamingo crop milk.)[50]

For the first six days after the chicks hatch, the adults and chicks stay in the nesting sites. At around 7–12 days old, the chicks begin to move out of their nests and explore their surroundings. When they are two weeks old, the chicks congregate in groups, called "microcrèches", and their parents leave them alone. After a while, the microcrèches merge into "crèches" containing thousands of chicks. Chicks that do not stay in their crèches are vulnerable to predators.[51]

Status and conservation

In captivity

The first flamingo hatched in a European zoo was a Chilean flamingo at Zoo Basel in Switzerland in 1958. Since then, over 389 flamingos have grown up in Basel and been distributed to other zoos around the globe.[52]

Greater, an at least 83-year-old greater flamingo, believed to be the oldest in the world, died at the Adelaide Zoo in Australia in January 2014.[53]

Zoos have used mirrors to improve flamingo breeding behaviour. The mirrors are thought to give the flamingos the impression that they are in a larger flock than they actually are.[54]

Flamingos in Ancient Roman cuisine

Pink flamingo prepared for cooking (Bardo Museum)

While many different kinds of birds were valued items in Roman food, flamingos were among the most prized in Ancient Roman cuisine. An early reference to their consumption, and especially of their tongues, is found in Pliny the Elder, who states in the Natural History:

Latin: phoenicopteri linguam praecipui saporis esse apicius docuit, nepotum omnium altissimus gurges [Translated:] Apicius, that very deepest whirlpool of all our epicures, has informed us that the tongue of the phœnicopterus is of the most exquisite flavour.

Although a few recipes for flamingos are found in Apicius' extant works, none refer specifically to flamingo tongues. The three flamingo recipes in the De re coquinaria (On the Subject of Cooking) involve the whole creature:

  • 220 — roasted with an egg sauce, a recipe for wood pigeons, squabs, fattened fowl; flamingo is an afterthought.
  • 230 — boiled; parrot may be substituted.
  • 231 — roasted with a must sauce.[55]

Suetonius mentions flamingo tongues in his Life of Vitellius:[56]

Most notorious of all was the dinner given by his brother to celebrate the emperor's arrival in Rome, at which two thousand of the choicest fishes and seven thousand birds are said to have been served. He himself eclipsed even this at the dedication of a platter, which on account of its enormous size he called the "Shield of Minerva, Defender of the City." In this he mingled the livers of pike, the brains of pheasants and peacocks, the tongues of flamingoes and the milt of lampreys, brought by his captains and triremes from the whole empire, from Parthia to the Spain strait.

Martial, the poet, devoted an ironic epigram, alluding to flamingo tongues:

Latin:

Dat mihi penna rubens nomen; sed lingua gulosis

Nostra sapit: quid, si garrula lingua foret?

[Translated:] My red wing gives me my name; but it is my tongue that is considered savoury by epicures. What, if my tongue had been able to sing?

There is also a mention of flamingo brains in a later, highly contentious source, detailing, in the life of Elagabalus, a food item not apparently to his liking as much as camels' heels and parrot tongues, in the belief that the latter was a prophylactic:

In imitation of Apicius he frequently ate camels-heels and also cocks-combs taken from the living birds, and the tongues of peacocks and nightingales, because he was told that one who ate them was immune from the plague. He served to the palace-attendants, moreover, huge platters heaped up with the viscera of mullets, and flamingo-brains, partridge-eggs, thrush-brains, and the heads of parrots, pheasants, and peacocks.[57]

Other relationship with humans

Moche ceramic depicting flamingo (200 AD). Larco Museum, Lima, Peru
  • In the Americas, the Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature.[58] They placed emphasis on animals, and often depicted flamingos in their art.[59]
  • The Ancient Egyptian god Set is depicted with a flamingo head in the Book of the Faiyum.[60]
  • Flamingos are the national bird of the Bahamas.
  • Andean miners have killed flamingos for their fat, believing that it would cure tuberculosis.[61]
  • In the United States, pink plastic flamingo statues are popular lawn ornaments.[62]

Notes

  1. ↑ Both forms of the plural are attested, according to the Oxford English Dictionary

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References

  1. ↑ Torres, Chris R; Ogawa, Lisa M; Gillingham, Mark AF; Ferrari, Brittney; Marcel, van Tuinen (2014). "A multi-locus inference of the evolutionary diversification of extant flamingos (Phoenicopteridae).". BMC Evolutionary Biology 14 (36): 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-36. PMID 24580860. 
  2. ↑ "A Flamboyance of Flamingos and Other Brilliant Bird Group Names" (in en-US). https://www.dictionary.com/e/s/flamboyance-flamingos-brilliant-bird-groups/. 
  3. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "flamingo". Online Etymology Dictionary. https://www.etymonline.com/?term=flamingo. 
  4. ↑ Bonaparte, Charles Lucien (1831) (in Italian). Saggio di una distribuzione metodica degli animali vertebrati. Rome: Antonio Boulzaler. p. 59. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/33059914. 
  5. ↑ Bock, Walter J. (1994). History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Number 222. New York: American Museum of Natural History. pp. 132, 227. http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/handle/2246/830. 
  6. ↑ Salzman, Eric (December 1993). "Sibley's Classification of Birds". Ornitologia e dintorni. http://www.scricciolo.com/classificazione/sequence4.htm. 
  7. ↑ Sibley, Charles G.; Corbin, Kendall W.; Haavie, Joan H. (1969). "The Relationships of the Flamingos as Indicated by the Egg-White Proteins and Hemoglobins". Condor 71 (2): 155–179. doi:10.2307/1366077. http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v071n02/p0155-p0179.pdf. 
  8. ↑ Johnson, Kevin P.; Kennedy, Martyn; McCracken, Kevin G. (2006). "Reinterpreting the origins of flamingo lice: cospeciation or host-switching?". Biology Letters 2 (2): 275–278. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0427. PMID 17148381. PMC 1618896. http://mercury.bio.uaf.edu/~kevin_mccracken/reprints/biol-lett-2-275.pdf. Retrieved 31 October 2009. 
  9. ↑ Feduccia, Alan (1976). "Osteological evidence for shorebird affinities of the flamingos". Auk 93 (3): 587. http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v093n03/p0587-p0601.pdf. Retrieved 3 November 2009. 
  10. ↑ Kurochkin, E. N.; Dyke, G. J.; Karhu, A. A. (2002). "A New Presbyornithid Bird (Aves, Anseriformes) from the Late Cretaceous of Southern Mongolia". American Museum Novitates (3386): 1–11. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2002)386<0001:ANPBAA>2.0.CO;2. http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/bitstream/2246/2875/1//v2/dspace/ingest/pdfSource/nov/N3386.pdf. 
  11. ↑ Jarvis, E.D. (2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds". Science 346 (6215): 1320–1331. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. PMID 25504713. Bibcode: 2014Sci...346.1320J. 
  12. ↑ Chubb, AL (2004). "New nuclear evidence for the oldest divergence among neognath birds: the phylogenetic utility of ZENK (i)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30 (1): 140–151. doi:10.1016/s1055-7903(03)00159-3. PMID 15022765. 
  13. ↑ Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, CL; Britton, T; Elzanowski, A; Johansson, US; Källersjö, M; Ohlson, JI; Parsons, TJ et al. (December 2006). "Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils". Biology Letters 2 (4): 543–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523. PMID 17148284. PMC 1834003. http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/neoaves.pdf. Retrieved 15 November 2009. 
  14. ↑ Hackett, Shannon J.; Kimball, Rebecca T.; Reddy, Sushma; Bowie, Rauri C. K.; Braun, Edward L.; Braun, Michael J.; Chojnowski, Jena L.; Cox, W. Andrew et al. (27 June 2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Science 320 (5884): 1763–1768. doi:10.1126/science.1157704. PMID 18583609. Bibcode: 2008Sci...320.1763H. 
  15. ↑ Mayr, Gerald (2004). "Morphological evidence for sister group relationship between flamingos (Aves: Phoenicopteridae) and grebes (Podicipedidae)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 140 (2): 157–169. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2003.00094.x. http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/flamingo.pdf. Retrieved 3 November 2009. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Mayr, Gerald (2006). "The contribution of fossils to the reconstruction of the higher-level phylogeny of birds". Species, Phylogeny and Evolution 3: 59–64. ISSN 1098-660X. http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/gottingen.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2009. 
  17. ↑ Boyd, John (2007). "NEOAVES- COLUMBEA". http://jboyd.net/Taxo/List3.html#phoenicopteriformes. 
  18. ↑ Torres, Chris R; Ogawa, Lisa M; Gillingham, Mark AF; Ferrari, Brittney; Van Tuinen, Marcel (2014). "A multi-locus inference of the evolutionary diversification of extant flamingos (Phoenicopteridae)". BMC Evolutionary Biology 14 (1): 36. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-36. PMID 24580860. 
  19. ↑ Gill, F and D Donsker (Eds). (2016). IOC World Bird List (v 6.3).
  20. ↑ Del Hoyo, Josep; Boesman, Peter F. D.; Garcia, Ernest; Kirwan, Guy M. (2020). Del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi et al.. eds (in en). Lesser Flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). doi:10.2173/bow.lesfla1.01. http://www.hbw.com/species/lesser-flamingo-phoeniconaias-minor. Retrieved 2019-12-18. 
  21. ↑ Scientists: Florida flamingos are native to the state, News-Press, Chad Gillis, February 23, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
  22. ↑ Mayr, G. (2005). "The Paleogene fossil record of birds in Europe". Biological Reviews 80 (4): 515–542. doi:10.1017/S1464793105006779. PMID 16221327. https://www.senckenberg.de/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/tertiary_birds.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Torres, C. R.; De Pietri, V. L.; Louchart, A.; Van Tuinen, M. (2015). "New cranial material of the earliest filter feeding flamingo Harrisonavis croizeti (Aves, Phoenicopteridae) informs the evolution of the highly specialized filter feeding apparatus". Organisms Diversity & Evolution 15 (3): 609–618. doi:10.1007/s13127-015-0209-7. 
  24. ↑ Rich, P. V.; Walker, C.A. (1983). "A New Genus of Miocene Flamingo from East Africa". Ostrich 54 (2): 95–104. doi:10.1080/00306525.1983.9634452. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Rich, P.V.; van Tets, G.F.; Rich, T.H.V.; McEvey, A.R. (1987). "The Pliocene and Quaternary Flamingos of Australia". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 25 (1): 207–225. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/126031#page/209/mode/1up. 
  26. ↑ Cheneval, J.; Ginsburg, L.; Mourer-Chauvire, Cécile; Ratanasthien, Benjavun (1991). "The Miocene avifauna of the Li Mae Long locality, Thailand: systematics and paleoecology". Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 6 (2): 117–126. doi:10.1016/0743-9547(91)90103-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229274612. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Miller, A.H. (1963). "The fossil flamingos of Australia.". The Condor 65 (4): 289–299. doi:10.2307/1365355. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v065n04/p0289-p0299.pdf. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Howard, H. (1955). "Fossil Birds from Manix Lake California: Descriptions of late Pleistocene bira remains, including a new species of flamingo". Geological Survey Professional Paper 264: 199–205. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0264j/report.pdf. 
  29. ↑ Brodkorb, P. (1953). "A Pliocene flamingo from Florida". Natural History Miscellanea (124): 1–4. 
  30. ↑ Miller, L. (1944). "A Pliocene flamingo from Mexico". The Wilson Bulletin 56 (2): 77–82. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v056n02/p0077-p0082.pdf. 
  31. ↑ Walker, Matt (13 August 2009). "Why flamingoes stand on one leg". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8197000/8197932.stm. 
  32. ↑ Chang, Young-Hui; Ting, Lena H. (24 May 2017). "Mechanical evidence that flamingos can support their body on one leg with little active muscular force". Biology Letters 13 (5): 20160948. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0948. PMID 28539457. 
  33. ↑ Bildstein, Keith L.; Frederick, Peter C.; Spalding, Marilyn G. (November 1991). "Feeding Patterns and Aggressive Behavior in Juvenile and Adult American Flamingos". The Condor 93 (4): 916–925. doi:10.2307/3247726. 
  34. ↑ Fugitive flamingo spotted in Texas 14 years after escaping a Kansas zoo during storm, Wichita Eagle, Kaitlyn Alanis, May 27, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2019.
  35. ↑ Grazian, David (2015). American Zoo: A Sociological Safari. Princeton, NJ, US: Princeton University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-691-16435-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=SLpKCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35. 
  36. ↑ Bradford, Alina. 2014. Flamingo Facts: Food Turns Feathers Pink. September 18. Accessed March 2018. https://www.livescience.com/27322-flamingos.html
  37. ↑ Jenkin, Penelope M. (1957-05-09). "The filter-feeding and food of flamingoes (Pheonicopteri)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 240 (674): 401–493. doi:10.1098/rstb.1957.0004. Bibcode: 1957RSPTB.240..401J. , page 409.
  38. ↑ Hill, G. E.; Montgomerie, R.; Inouye, C. Y.; Dale, J. (June 1994). "Influence of Dietary Carotenoids on Plasma and Plumage Colour in the House Finch: Intra- and Intersexual Variation". Functional Ecology 8 (3): 343–350. doi:10.2307/2389827. 
  39. ↑ "NATURE: Fire Bird – Flamingo Facts". Pbs.org. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/firebird/html/facts.html. 
  40. ↑ "Caribbean Flamingo". Saint Louis Zoo. https://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/birds/heronsflamingosibisspoonbi/caribbeanflamingo. Retrieved 2021-02-22. 
  41. ↑ "American Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) Fact Sheet: Behavior & Ecology". San Diego Zoo Global. https://ielc.libguides.com/sdzg/factsheets/americanflamingo/behavior. Retrieved 2021-02-22. 
  42. ↑ Pickett, C.; Stevens, E. F. (1994). "Managing the Social Environments of Flamingos for Reproductive Success". Zoo Biology 13 (5): 501–507. doi:10.1002/zoo.1430130512. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Ogilvie, Malcolm; Carol Ogilvie (1986). Flamingos. Gloucester, UK: Alan Sutton Publishing Limited. ISBN:9780862992668. Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter exited with status 1..
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Studer-Thiersch, A. (1975). "Basle Zoo", pp. 121–130 in N. Duplaix-Hall and J. Kear, editors. Flamingos. Berkhamsted, United Kingdom: T. & A. D. Poyser, ISBN:140813750X.
  45. ↑ Studer-Thiersch, A. (2000). "What 19 Years of Observation on Captive Great Flamingos Suggests about Adaptations to Breeding under Irregular Conditions". Waterbirds: The International Journal of Waterbird Biology 23 (Special Publication I: Conservation Biology of Flamingos): 150–159. doi:10.2307/1522160. 
  46. ↑ Johnson, Alan; Cézilly, Frank (1975). The Greater Flamingo. London: T & AD Poyser Ltd.. pp. 124–130. ISBN 978-1-4081-3866-3. 
  47. ↑ Bagemihl, Bruce (1999). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. Stonewall Inn Editions. pp. 524–7. ISBN 978-0312253776. https://archive.org/details/biologicalexuber00bage/page/524. 
  48. ↑ Cézilly, F.; Johnson, A.; Tourenq, C. (1994). "Variation in Parental Care with Offspring Age in the Greater Flamingo". The Condor 96 (3): 809–812. doi:10.2307/1369487. http://sora.unm.edu/node/104905. 
  49. ↑ Ann M. Ward, Amy Hunt, Mike Maslanka, and Chris Brown, Nutrient Composition Of American Flamingo Crop Milk, https://nagonline.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Ward-Nutrient-Composition-Of-American-Flamingo-Crop-Milk.pdf 
  50. ↑ Ehrlich, Paul; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl (1988). The Birder's Handbook. New York, NY, US: Simon & Schuster, Inc.. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-671-62133-9. https://archive.org/details/birdershandbookf00ehrl_0. 
  51. ↑ Gaillo, A.; Johnson, A. R.; Gallo, A. (1995). "Adult Aggressiveness and Crèching Behavior in the Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber roseus". Colonial Waterbirds 18 (2): 216–221. doi:10.2307/1521484. 
  52. ↑ "Zolli feiert 50 Jahre Flamingozucht und Flamingosforschung" (in de). Basler Zeitung. 13 August 2008. http://bazonline.ch/basel/dossier/zoo-basel/Zolli-feiert-50-Jahre-Flamingozucht-und-Flamingosforschung/story/26419827. 
  53. ↑ Fedorowytsch, Tom (31 January 2014). "Flamingo believed to be world's oldest dies at Adelaide Zoo aged 83". ABC Radio Australia. http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2014-01-31/flamingo-believed-to-be-worlds-oldest-dies-at-adelaide-zoo-aged-83/1257422. 
  54. ↑ "Colchester Zoo use mirrors to help flamingos to breed". 26 July 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/essex/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_8854000/8854531.stm. 
  55. ↑ "LacusCurtius • Pliny the Elder's Natural History — Book 10". https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/10*.html. 
  56. ↑ "C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Vitellius, chapter 13, section 2". https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0061%3Alife%3Dvit.%3Achapter%3D13%3Asection%3D2. 
  57. ↑ "Historia Augusta • Life of Elagabalus (Part 2 of 2)". https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Elagabalus/2*.html. 
  58. ↑ Benson, Elizabeth (1972) The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York, NY: Praeger Press.
  59. ↑ Berrin, Katherine; Larco Museum (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500018026. 
  60. ↑ Beinlich, Horst (2013). The Book of the Faiyum. University of Heidelberg. pp. 27–77, esp.38–39. https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/2891/1/Beinlich_Faiyum_2013.pdf. 
  61. ↑ "Flamingos". Seaworld.org. http://www.seaworld.org/infobooks/Flamingos/fdeath.html. 
  62. ↑ Collins, Clayton (2 November 2006). "Backstory: Extinction of an American icon?". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1102/p20s01-lihc.html. 

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