Biology:Coral snake

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Short description: Large group of elapid snakes
Biology:Coral snake
Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Superfamily: Elapoidea
Family: Elapidae

Coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be divided into two distinct groups, the Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes. There are 27 species of Old World coral snakes, in three genera (Calliophis, Hemibungarus, and Sinomicrurus), and 83 recognized species of New World coral snakes, in two genera (Micruroides and Micrurus). Genetic studies have found that the most basal lineages have origins in Asia, suggesting that the group originated in the Old World.[1][2] While new world species of both genera are venomous, their bites are seldom lethal; only two confirmed fatalities have been documented in the past 100 years from the genus Micrurus. Meanwhile, snakes of the genus Micruroides have never caused a medically significant bite.[3]

North American coloration patterns

Experts now recognize that certain coloration patterns and common mnemonics—such as the phrase “Red touch yellow, kill a fellow; red touch black, friend of Jack,” which people sometimes use to distinguish between the venomous coral snake and the non-venomous milksnake—are not consistent enough to be trustworthy. While any snake exhibiting the coral snake's color and/or banding pattern in the southeastern United States will almost certainly, in fact, be a coral snake, there are coral snakes in other parts of the world which are colored differently.[4]

Coral snakes in the United States are most notable for their red, yellow/white, and black-colored banding. However, several nonvenomous species in the U.S. have similar (though not identical) bandings, including the two scarlet snake species in the genus Cemophora, and some of the kingsnakes (including the aforementioned milksnakes) in the genus Lampropeltis. However, in reference to the mnemonic phrase “red touching yellow, a deadly fellow,” some of these kingsnakes do not naturally display any red touching yellow, to begin with. Additionally, some ground snakes in the genus Sonora (of the southwestern U.S.) can have a color pattern that matches that of the sympatric Sonoran coral snake (Micruroides euryxanthus). No genuine coral snake in the U.S. exhibits red bands of color, in contact with bands of black, except in rare cases of an aberrant pattern. Thus, while on extremely rare occasions when a certain non-venomous snake might be mistaken for a coral snake, the mnemonic holds true. However, a red–yellow–black banded snake in the U.S. (whose red and black banding actually touch) is rarely a venomous coral snake.

Furthermore, the mnemonic is not consistently accurate for North American coral snake species found south of the U.S., either. Some species, like Mexico’s Oaxacan coral snake (Micrurus ephippifer) or Clark's coral snake (Micrurus clarki, of Costa Rica & Panama), do actually fit the mnemonic; others, like the Mexican saddled coral snake (Micrurus bernadi), the Honduran Roatan coral snake (Micrurus ruatanus), or the redtail coral snake (Micrurus mipartitus) of Panama, do not. Further still, some South American coral snakes will fit the mnemonic, while others do not. To complicate the issue more, the South American tricolored hognose snake (Xenodon pulcher) has repeated bands of red-black-white-black, imitating the coral snake as a defense mechanism, with the key visual difference being their upturned snout (used for burrowing). The hognoses are, actually, mildly rear-fanged venomous; although generally not considered serious to humans, anecdotal research has suggested the South American hognoses to possess slightly more potent venom than the North American hognoses. In the Old World, none of the coral snake species usually fit the mnemonic.

Most species of coral snake are small in size. North American species average around 90 cm (3 ft) in length, but specimens of up to 150 cm (5 ft) or slightly larger have been reported. Some coral snakes even live in the water but most of them do not. Aquatic species have flattened tails that act as fins, aiding in swimming.

Behavior

Coral snake showing typically reclusive behavior of hiding under rotting wood. This one was over 75 cm (30 in) long, but less than 25 mm (1 in) across.

Coral snakes vary widely in their behavior, but most are very elusive, fossorial (burrowing) snakes which spend most of their time buried beneath the ground or in the leaf litter of a rainforest floor, coming to the surface only when it rains or during breeding season. Some species, like Micrurus surinamensis, are almost entirely aquatic and spend most of their lives in slow-moving bodies of water that have dense vegetation.

Coral snakes feed mostly on smaller snakes, lizards, frogs, nestling birds, small rodents, etc.

Like all elapid snakes, coral snakes possess a pair of small hollow fangs to deliver their venom. The fangs are positioned at the front of the mouth.[5][6] The fangs are fixed in position rather than retractable, and rather than being directly connected to the venom duct, they have a small groove through which the venom enters the base of the fangs.[7][8] Because the fangs are relatively small and inefficient for venom delivery, rather than biting quickly and letting go (like vipers), coral snakes tend to hold onto their prey and make chewing motions when biting.[7][9] The venom takes time to reach full effect.[8]

Coral snakes are not aggressive or prone to biting and account for less than one percent of the total number of snake bites each year in the United States. The life span of coral snakes in captivity is about seven years.[10]

Reproduction

M. fulvius reproduction is internal fertilization through the use of hemipenes. The breeding season occurs from spring to early summer and late summer to early fall.[11] Male combat is not typical in M. fulvius as males are smaller than females.[12] Micrurus fulvius are oviparous and typically lay eggs from May to July. During early spring females will undergo sudden vitellogenesis–oocyte and yolk formation–in preparation for breeding. Approximately 37 days post fertilization oviposition occurs and the average clutch size ranges from five to seven eggs. The incubation period of the M. fulvius eggs normally reaches 60 days.[11] Males also undergo sexual changes throughout the year, testicular recrudescence start in the fall and testicular regression occurs come spring.[13] However, males typically have mature sperm residing in the epididymis year round and are capable of storing sperm in the deferent duct over the winter till the females are receptive. A study investigating how climate influences the reproductive cycle discovered species found closer to the equator displayed more continuous cycles while those in colder regions had more seasonal cycles. With increasing temperatures as a result of climate change, continuous cycles have the possibility of becoming more prevalent.[12] Offspring reach maturation depending on sex, males mature at roughly 11 to 16 months while females reach maturity later at 26 months.[13]

Distribution (U.S.)

Eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius)

New World coral snakes exist in the southern range of many temperate U.S. states. Coral snakes are found in scattered localities in the southern coastal plains from North Carolina to Louisiana, including all of Florida. They can be found in pine and scrub oak sandhill habitats in parts of this range, but sometimes inhabit hardwood areas and pine flatwoods that undergo seasonal flooding.[14]

There is controversy about the classification of the very similar Texas coral snake as a separate species. Its habitat, in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas is separated from the eastern coral snake's habitat by the Mississippi River. The coral snake population is most dense in the southeastern United States, but coral snakes have been documented as far north as Kentucky.[15]

The Arizona coral snake is classified as a separate species and genus and is found in central and southern Arizona, extreme southwestern New Mexico and southward to Sinaloa in western Mexico. It occupies arid and semiarid regions in many different habitat types, including thornscrub, desert-scrub, woodland, grassland and farmland. It is found in the plains and lower mountain slopes, at elevations ranging from sea level to 1,800 m (5,800 ft); often found in rocky areas.[16]

Danger to humans

New World coral snakes possess one of the most potent venoms of any North American snake. However, relatively few bites are recorded due to their reclusive nature and the fact they generally inhabit sparsely populated areas. Even in areas that are densely populated bites are rare. According to the American National Institutes of Health, there are an average of 15–25 coral snake bites in the United States each year.[17] When confronted by humans, coral snakes will almost always attempt to flee, and bite only if restrained. In addition, coral snakes have short fangs (proteroglyph dentition) that cannot penetrate thick clothing although bites are possible through normal thin clothing. Any skin penetration, however, is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention.

Historically, the venom of the North American Micrurus and Micruroides species was believed to contain powerful neurotoxins which could paralyze the breathing muscles, requiring mechanical or artificial respiration. It was usually reported that there was only mild pain associated with a bite and that respiratory failure could occur within hours. However recent studies on the bites of at least the Texas Coralsnake (Micrurus tener) have shown that these bites rarely require antivenom, don't usually show any systemic respiratory problems and can be intensely painful.[18] Further studies are necessary to see if these clinical features are true of all Micrurus species. Body length in coral snakes appears to be positively associated with venom yield.[19]

Shortages of coral snake antivenom were previously reported,[20][21][22] but one source states that production has resumed[23] and, (As of July 2021) Pfizer indicates that antivenom is available.[24]

Old World

Genus Calliophis

Main page: CalliophisSpecies in this genus are:

Nota bene: A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Calliophis.

Genus Hemibungarus

Main page: HemibungarusSpecies in this genus are:

Genus Sinomicrurus

Main page: Biology:Sinomicrurus

Species in this genus are:

  • Sinomicrurus annularis (Günther, 1864)
  • Sinomicrurus boettgeri (Fritze, 1894)
  • Sinomicrurus iwasakii (Maki, 1935)
  • Sinomicrurus japonicus (Günther, 1868) – Japanese coral snake (Ryukyu Islands)
  • Sinomicrurus kelloggi (Pope, 1928) – Kellogg's coral snake (Vietnam, Laos, China )
  • Sinomicrurus macclellandi (J.T. Reinhardt, 1844) – Macclelland's coral snake (India , Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China , Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan)
  • Sinomicrurus peinani Liu, Yan, Hou, Wang, S.N. Nguyen, R. Murphy, Che & Guo, 2020
  • Sinomicrurus sauteri (Steindachner, 1913) (Taiwan)
  • Sinomicrurus swinhoei (Van Denburgh, 1912)

New World

Genus Micruroides

  • Micruroides euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860) – Arizona coral snake (lowland regions from Arizona to Sinaloa, Mexico)
    • Micruroides euryxanthus australis Zweifel & Norris, 1955
    • Micruroides euryxanthus euryxanthus (Kennicott, 1860)
    • Micruroides euryxanthus neglectus Roze, 1967

Genus Micrurus

Nota bene: In the following list, a binomial authority or a trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species or subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Micrurus.

  • Micrurus albicinctus Amaral, 1925 – White-banded Coral Snake
  • Micrurus alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Allen's coral snake (eastern Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama)
    • Micrurus alleni alleni K.P. Schmidt, 1936
    • Micrurus alleni richardi Taylor, 1951
    • Micrurus alleni yatesi Taylor, 1954
  • Micrurus altirostris (Cope, 1860) (Brazil , Uruguay, and northeastern Argentina )
  • Micrurus ancoralis Jan, 1872 – regal coral snake (southeastern Panama, western Colombia, and western Ecuador)
    • Micrurus ancoralis ancoralis Jan 1872
    • Micrurus ancoralis jani K.P. Schmidt, 1936
  • Micrurus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871) – annellated coral snake (southeastern Ecuador, eastern Peru, Bolivia, and western Brazil )
    • Micrurus annellatus annellatus (W. Peters, 1871)
    • Micrurus annellatus balzanii (Boulenger, 1898)
    • Micrurus annellatus bolivianus Roze, 1967
  • Micrurus averyi K.P. Schmidt, 1939 – black-headed coral snake
  • Micrurus baliocoryphus (Cope, 1860) – Mesopotamian coral snake
  • Micrurus bernadi (Cope, 1887) (Mexico)
  • Micrurus bocourti (Jan 1872) – Ecuadorian coral snake (western Ecuador to northern Colombia)
  • Micrurus bogerti Roze, 1967 – Bogert's coral snake (Oaxaca)
  • Micrurus boicora Bernarde, Turci, Abegg & Franco, 2018 – Boicora Coral Snake
  • Micrurus brasiliensis Roze, 1967 – Brazilian short-tailed coral snake
  • Micrurus browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943 – Brown's coral snake (Quintana Roo to Honduras)
    • Micrurus browni browni K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
    • Micrurus browni importunus Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus browni taylori K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
  • Micrurus camilae Renjifo & Lundberg, 2003 (Colombia)
  • Micrurus catamayensis Roze, 1989 – Catamayo coral snake (Catamayo Valley of Ecuador)
  • Micrurus clarki K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Clark's coral snake (southeastern Costa Rica to western Colombia)
  • Micrurus collaris (Schlegel, 1837) – Guyana blackback coral snake (northern South America)
    • Micrurus collaris collaris (Schlegel, 1837)
    • Micrurus collaris breviventris Roze & Bernal-Carlo, 1987
  • Micrurus corallinus (Merrem, 1820) – painted coral snake
  • Micrurus decoratus (Jan 1858) – Brazilian coral snake
  • Micrurus diana Roze, 1983
  • Micrurus diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – variable coral snake
    • Micrurus diastema aglaeope (Cope, 1859)
    • Micrurus diastema alienus (F. Werner, 1903)
    • Micrurus diastema affinis (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus diastema apiatus (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus diastema diastema (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus diastema macdougalli Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus diastema sapperi (F. Werner, 1903)
  • Micrurus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860) – pygmy coral snake
    • Micrurus dissoleucus dissoleucus (Cope, 1860)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus dunni Barbour, 1923
    • Micrurus dissoleucus melanogenys (Cope, 1860)
    • Micrurus dissoleucus meridensis Roze, 1989
    • Micrurus dissoleucus nigrirostris K.P. Schmidt, 1955
  • Micrurus distans (Kennicott, 1860) – West Mexican coral snake
    • Micrurus distans distans (Kennicott, 1860)
    • Micrurus distans michoacanensis (Dugės, 1891)
    • Micrurus distans oliveri Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus distans zweifeli Roze, 1967
  • Micrurus diutius Burger, 1955 – Trinidad Ribbon Coral Snake
  • Micrurus dumerilii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus dumerilii antioquiensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
    • Micrurus dumerilii carinicaudus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
    • Micrurus dumerilii colombianus (Griffin, 1916)
    • Micrurus dumerilii dumerilii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus dumerilii transandinus K.P. Schmidt, 1936
    • Micrurus dumerilii venezuelensis Roze, 1989
  • Micrurus elegans (Jan 1858) – elegant coral snake
    • Micrurus elegans elegans (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus elegans veraepacis K.P. Schmidt, 1933
  • Micrurus ephippifer (Cope, 1886) – Oaxacan coral snake
    • Micrurus ephippifer ephippifer (Cope, 1886)
    • Micrurus ephippifer zapotecus Roze, 1989
  • Micrurus filiformis (Günther, 1859) – slender coral snake
    • Micrurus filiformis filiformis (Günther, 1859)
    • Micrurus filiformis subtilis Roze, 1967
  • Micrurus frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – southern coral snake (Brazil to northeastern Argentina )
    • Micrurus frontalis frontalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus frontalis mesopotamicus Barrio & Miranda, 1967
  • Micrurus fulvius (Linnaeus, 1766) – eastern coral snake (United States coastal plains of North Carolina to Louisiana)
  • Micrurus hemprichii (Jan 1858) – Hemprich's coral snake
    • Micrurus hemprichii hemprichii (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus hemprichii ortoni K.P. Schmidt, 1953
    • Micrurus hemprichii rondonianus Roze & Silva, 1990
  • Micrurus hippocrepis (W. Peters, 1862) – Mayan coral snake
  • Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) – Caatinga coral snake
  • Micrurus isozonus (Cope, 1860) – Venezuela coral snake
  • Micrurus langsdorffi (Wagler, 1824) – Langsdorff's coral snake
  • Micrurus laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870) – Balsan coral snake
    • Micrurus laticollaris laticollaris (W. Peters, 1870)
    • Micrurus laticollaris maculirostris Roze, 1967
  • Micrurus latifasciatus K.P. Schmidt, 1933 – broad-ringed coral snake
  • Micrurus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758) – South American coral snake (most of low-lying areas of South America)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus carvalhoi Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus lemniscatus frontifasciatus (F. Werner, 1927)
    • Micrurus lemniscatus helleri K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
    • Micrurus lemniscatus lemniscatus (Linnaeus, 1758)
  • Micrurus limbatus Fraser, 1964 – Tuxtlan coral snake
    • Micrurus limbatus limbatus Fraser, 1964
    • Micrurus limbatus spilosomus Pérez-Higareda & H.M. Smith, 1990
  • Micrurus margaritiferus Roze, 1967 – speckled coral snake
  • Micrurus medemi Roze, 1967
  • Micrurus meridensis (Roze, 1989) – Merida's coral snake
  • Micrurus mertensi K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Merten's coral snake
  • Micrurus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854) – redtail coral snake
    • Micrurus mipartitus anomalus (Boulenger, 1896)
    • Micrurus mipartitus decussatus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron, & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus mipartitus mipartitus (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus mipartitus semipartitus (Jan 1858)
  • Micrurus mosquitensis Schmidt, 1933 – Misquito coral snake
  • Micrurus multifasciatus (Jan 1858) – many-banded coral snake
    • Micrurus multifasciatus multifasciatus (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus multifasciatus hertwigi (F. Werner, 1897)
  • Micrurus multiscutatus Rendahl & Vestergren, 1940 – Cauca coral snake
  • Micrurus narduccii (Jan, 1863) – Andean blackback coral snake
    • Micrurus narduccii narduccii (Jan 1863)
    • Micrurus narduccii melanotus (W. Peters, 1881)
  • Micrurus nattereri (Schmidt, 1952) – Natterer's Coral Snake
  • Micrurus nebularis Roze, 1989 – cloud forest coral snake
  • Micrurus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854) – Central American coral snake (Yucatan and Chiapas to Colombia as well as western Caribbean islands)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus babaspul Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus coibensis K.P. Schmidt, 1936
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus divaricatus (Hallowell, 1855)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus nigrocinctus (Girard, 1854)
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus ovandoensis K.P. Schmidt & H.M. Smith, 1943
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus wagneri Mertens, 1941
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus yatesi Dunn, 1942
    • Micrurus nigrocinctus zunilensis K.P. Schmidt, 1932
  • Micrurus obscurus (Jan 1872) – Bolivian Coral Snake
  • Micrurus oligoanellatus (Ayerbe & Lopez, 2005) – Tambito's Coral Snake
  • Micrurus ornatissimus (Jan 1858) – Ornate Coral Snake
  • Micrurus pacaraimae Morato de Carvalho, 2002
  • Micrurus pachecogili Campbell, 2000
  • Micrurus paraensis da Cunha & Nascimento, 1973
  • Micrurus peruvianus K.P. Schmidt, 1936 – Peruvian coral snake
  • Micrurus petersi Roze, 1967 – Peters' coral snake
  • Micrurus potyguara Pires, Silva, Feitosa, Prudente, Pereira-Filho & Zaher, 2014 – Potyguara coral snake
  • Micrurus proximans H.M. Smith & Chrapliwy, 1958 – Nayarit coral snake
  • Micrurus psyches (Daudin, 1803) – Carib coral snake
    • Micrurus psyches circinalis (A.M.C. Duméril, Bibron & A.H.A. Duméril, 1854)
    • Micrurus psyches donosoi Hoge, Cordeiro & Romano, 1976
    • Micrurus psyches psyches (Daudin, 1803)
  • Micrurus putumayensis Lancini, 1962 – Putumayo coral snake
  • Micrurus pyrrhocryptus (Cope, 1862)
  • Micrurus remotus Roze, 1987
  • Micrurus renjifoi Lamar, 2003
  • Micrurus ruatanus (Günther, 1895) – Roatán coral snake
  • Micrurus sangilensis Nicéforo-María, 1942 – Santander coral snake
  • Micrurus scutiventris (Cope, 1869)
  • Micrurus serranus (Harvey, Aparicio & Gonzalez, 2003)
  • Micrurus silviae Di-Bernardo, Borges-Martins & Silva, 2007
  • Micrurus spixii (Wagler, 1824) – Amazon coral snake
    • Micrurus spixiii martiusi K.P. Schmidt, 1953
    • Micrurus spixii obscurus (Jan 1872)
    • Micrurus spixii princeps (Boulenger, 1905)
    • Micrurus spixii spixii (Wagler, 1824)
  • Micrurus spurelli (Boulenger, 1914)
  • Micrurus steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901) – Steindachner's coral snake
    • Micrurus steindachneri orcesi Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus steindachneri steindachneri (F. Werner, 1901)
  • Micrurus stewarti Barbour & Amaral, 1928 - Panamanian coral snake
  • Micrurus stuarti Roze, 1967 – Stuart's coral snake
  • Micrurus surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817) - aquatic coral snake
    • Micrurus surinamensis nattereri K.P. Schmidt, 1952
    • Micrurus surinamensis surinamensis (Cuvier, 1817)
  • Micrurus tener (Baird & Girard, 1853) – Texas coral snake (Texas and Louisiana south to Morelos and Guanajuato)
    • Micrurus tener fitzingeri (Jan 1858)
    • Micrurus tener maculatus Roze, 1967
    • Micrurus tener microgalbineus B.C. Brown & H.M. Smith, 1942
    • Micrurus tener tamaulipensis Lavin-Murcio & Dixon, 2004
    • Micrurus tener tener (Baird & Girard, 1853)
  • Micrurus tikuna Feitosa, Silva, Pires, Zaher & Prudente, 2015
  • Micrurus tricolor Hoge, 1956
  • Micrurus tschudii (Jan 1858) – desert coral snake
    • Micrurus tschudii olssoni K.P. Schmidt & F.J.W. Schmidt, 1925
    • Micrurus tschudii tschudii (Jan 1858)

Mimicry

New World coral snakes serve as models for their Batesian mimics, false coral snakes, snake species whose venom is less toxic, as well as for many nonvenomous snake species that bear superficial resemblances to them. The role of coral snakes as models for Batesian mimics is supported by research showing that coral snake color patterns deter predators from attacking snake-shaped prey,[25][26] and that in the absence of coral snakes, species hypothesized to mimic them are indeed attacked more frequently.[27] Species that appear similar to coral snakes include:

References

  1. ↑ Slowinski, J.B.; Keogh J.S. (April 2000). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 15 (1): 157–164. doi:10.1006/mpev.1999.0725. PMID 10764543. 
  2. ↑ Slowinski, J.B.; Boundy, J.; Lawson, R. (June 2001). "The phylogenetic relationships of Asian coral snakes (Elapidae: Calliophis and Maticora) based on morphological and molecular characters". Herpetologica 57 (2): 233–245. 
  3. ↑ Greene, Spencer C.; Folt, Jason; Wyatt, Kimberly; Brandehoff, Nicklaus P. (July 2021). "Epidemiology of fatal snakebites in the United States 1989-2018". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine 45: 309–316. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2020.08.083. PMID 33046301. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33046301/. 
  4. ↑ "The Most Common Myths About Coral Snakes | The Venom Interviews" (in en-US). http://thevenominterviews.com/2016/06/02/mythbusting-coral-snakes/. 
  5. ↑ Eastern Coral Snake (Micrurus fulvius) , Savannah River Ecology Library.
  6. ↑ "Coral Snakes: Rear fanged? Grooved fangs? Primitive?". http://www.madprogrammer.com/snakes/CoralSnake/. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Eastern Coral Snake". http://people.wcsu.edu/pinout/herpetology/mfulvius/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Coral Snakes: Micrurus f. fulvius". http://www.pestproducts.com/coral_snakes.htm. 
  9. ↑ Coral Snakes: Colors, Bites, Farts & Facts , Live Science.
  10. ↑ "Eastern Coral Snake". Animals national Geographic. 10 September 2010. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reptiles/eastern-coral-snake/. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Chapman, Shannon. "Micrurus fulvius (Eastern Coral Snake, Harlequin Coralsnake)" (in en). https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Micrurus_fulvius/. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Marques, Otavio A.V.; Pizzatto, Lígia; Santos, Selma M. Almeida (March 2013). "Reproductive Strategies of New World Coral Snakes, Genus Micrurus". Herpetologica 69 (1): 58–66. doi:10.1655/herpetologica-d-12-00091. ISSN 0018-0831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1655/herpetologica-d-12-00091. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Jackson, Dale R.; Franz, Richard (1981). "Ecology of the Eastern Coral Snake (Micrurus fulvius) in Northern Peninsular Florida". Herpetologica 37 (4): 213–228. ISSN 0018-0831. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3891805. 
  14. ↑ "University of Georgia, Savannah River Ecology, Snakes of Georgia and South Carolina". http://www.uga.edu/srelherp/snakes/micful.htm. 
  15. ↑ "Western Connecticut State University". http://people.wcsu.edu/pinout/herpetology/mfulvius/index.htm. 
  16. ↑ "Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum". http://www.desertmuseum.org/books/nhsd_coral_snake.php. 
  17. ↑ "Snake bites: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". Nlm.nih.gov. 13 January 2010. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000031.htm. 
  18. ↑ Greene, S.; Ruha, A. M.; Campleman, S.; Brent, J.; Wax, P.; ToxIC Snakebite Study Group (2021). "Epidemiology, Clinical Features, and Management of Texas Coral Snake (Micrurus tener) Envenomations Reported to the North American Snakebite Registry". Journal of Medical Toxicology 17 (1): 51–56. doi:10.1007/s13181-020-00806-3. PMID 32803694. 
  19. ↑ Peterson, Michael E. (2006-11-01). "Snake Bite: Coral Snakes" (in en). Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice. Practical Toxicology 21 (4): 183–186. doi:10.1053/j.ctsap.2006.10.005. ISSN 1096-2867. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1096286706000661. 
  20. ↑ "Safety & Availability (Biologics) > Expiration Date Extension for North American Coral Snake Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius) (Equine Origin) Lot 4030026 Through October 31, 2014". Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/SafetyAvailability/ucm445083.htm. 
  21. ↑ Breen, David (12 October 2013). "Risk from coral-snake bites grows as antivenin dwindles". Orlando Sentinel. http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2013-10-12/news/os-coral-snakebite-treatment-shortage-20131008_1_coral-snake-bites-antivenin-fda. 
  22. ↑ "Antivenom Shortages – Cost of Antivenom Production Creates Shortages". Popular Mechanics. 10 May 2010. http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/snakebites-about-to-get-more-deadly. 
  23. ↑ Greene, Spencer (9 April 2021). Alcock, Joe. ed. "What is the treatment for coral snake envenomation?". Medscape. https://www.medscape.com/answers/168828-39125/what-is-the-treatment-for-coral-snake-envenomation. Retrieved 9 July 2021. 
  24. ↑ "Antivenin (Micrurus fulvius equine origin) North American Coral Snake Antivenin". https://www.pfizerhospitalus.com/products/antivenin. 
  25. ↑ ((Brodie III, Edmund D)) (1993). "Differential avoidance of coral snake banded patterns by free-ranging avian predators in Costa Rica". Evolution 47 (1): 227–235. doi:10.2307/2410131. PMID 28568087. 
  26. ↑ Brodie III, Edmund D.; Moore, Allen J. (1995). "Experimental studies of coral snake mimicry: do snakes mimic millipedes?". Animal Behaviour 49 (2): 534–6. doi:10.1006/anbe.1995.0072. 
  27. ↑ Pfennig, David W.; Harcombe, William R.; Pfennig, Karin S. (2001). "Frequency-dependent Batesian mimicry". Nature 410 (6826): 323. doi:10.1038/35066628. PMID 11268195. Bibcode: 2001Natur.410..323P. 

Further reading

  • Boulenger, G.A. (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the Colubridæ (Opisthoglyphæ and Proteroglyphæ)…. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, Printers.) London. xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I.- XXV. (Elaps, 28 species, pp. 411–433 + Plate XX.)
  • Roze, J.A. (1996). Coral Snakes of the Americas: Biology, Identification, and Venoms. Krieger. Malabar, Florida. 340 pp. ISBN:978-0894648472.
  • Tanaka, G.D.; Furtado MD, F.D.; Portaro, F.C.V.; Sant'Anna, O.A.; Tambourgi, D.V. (2010). "Diversity of Micrurus Snake Species Related to Their Venom Toxic Effects and the Prospective of Antivenom Neutralization". PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4(3): e622. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000622
  • Universidad de Costa Rica (2009). El envenenamiento por mordedura de serpiente en Centroamérica ("Snakebite poisonings in Central America"). San José, Costa Rica: Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica. (in Spanish)



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