Biology:Mate guarding

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Short description: Reproductive behavior in animals
A male red-veined darter (Sympetrum fonscolombii) clasping a female behind the neck after copulation to prevent other males from mating and to increase the chances of successful paternity

Mate guarding is a reproductive behaviour, primarily of males, in an attempt to increase the likelihood of success of their own sperm fertilizing the eggs of females when competition is involved. Mate guarding behaviour can be pre- or post-copulatory.[1] Studies on the behaviour both based on theory and through experiments have been conducted on a wide range of species.[2] Mate guarding in humans is known.

In organisms where polygamy is dominant such as in most mammals, birds, and insects, there is significant male-male competition even prior to copulation. When organisms mate with multiple males and store sperm, maintaining their viability within storage structures, there is sperm competition and males evolve mechanisms to increase their odds of successful parenting. In some species such as the Apollo butterflies the males produce mating plugs that prevent the female from mating again. In some dragonflies, males will physically hold females after copulation to increase the chances that their own sperm fertilize the eggs laid.[3][4][5] In some moths where males prefer virgin females to mate, males may mark females with chemical compounds after copulation that make them less attractive to males.[6] Mate guarding by males comes with costs for them in terms of reduced time available for feeding and other activities.[7] Males may also have to choose between strategies of mating with multiple females or in choosing fewer females and guarding them during the critical phases.[8] Female strategies can include multiple mating to ensure that they obtain fitter sperm to pass on benefits to their offspring and so mate guarding can sometimes appear as a hindrance to them, however females may also receive other benefits such as protection from predation through the actions of the guarding males.[9][10]

Evolutionary arms race between sexes

Mate guarding is thought to be a component of an evolutionary arms race between males and females that is motivated by reproductive competition and sexual selection. In many animal species, females develop counter-strategies that enable them to retain reproductive choice, while males develop behaviors that increase the likelihood that their sperm fertilizes a female's eggs. When the sexes' reproductive interests diverge, this interaction is an example of sexual conflict.[11]

Prolonged copulation, physical guarding following mating, and the aggressive exclusion of rival males are among the male adaptations linked to mate guarding. These tactics lessen sperm competition and chances for further mating. In many species, however, females mate with multiple males (polyandry), which can enhance reproductive success and increase genetic diversity in offspring.[12][13]

Females may therefore develop physiological or behavioral strategies, such as sperm storage organs or selective sperm utilization, to thwart male control. This co-evolutionary process illustrates how natural selection continuously modifies reproductive behaviors.[14]

Female Mating Strategies

Females actively participate in mating systems, even though mate guarding mainly represents male reproductive behavior. Females in many taxa use multiple mating as a tactic to improve the fitness of their progeny. Females may obtain genetically compatible sperm, lower their risk of infertility, or increase the genetic variation of their offspring by mating with multiple males.[15]

Insects, birds, fish, and mammals have all been shown to exhibit this phenomenon, which is called polyandry.[16] Male sperm competition brought on by female multiple mating may indirectly enable females to choose better genetic contributors.[17] As a result, female reproductive autonomy contributes to the evolution of mate-guarding behaviors.[18]

Biological and Biomedical Significance

Mate guarding behavior sheds light on more general biological concepts pertaining to sexual selection, evolutionary fitness, and reproduction.[19] The evolution of reproductive anatomy, hormone regulation, and mating behavior among species can be explained by research on reproductive competition.[20]

Understanding reproductive health, evolutionary genetics, and fertility mechanisms has all benefited from research on sperm competition and reproductive conflict[21].Scientists can examine how environmental factors affect population dynamics and reproductive success by conducting comparative studies across animal systems. These discoveries have implications for conservation biology, evolutionary biology, and biomedical studies related to reproductive function.[22]

Examples Across Species

Many different animal groups engage in mate guarding. In order to thwart rival attempts at mating, male dragonflies often stay attached to females after copulation.[23] Males closely accompany fertile females during breeding seasons in some bird species.[24] Territorial defense and heightened alertness during female fertility are examples of mate-guarding behaviors in mammals [24].

Males in certain insects create mating plugs that momentarily obstruct the female reproductive tract[25], decreasing the possibility of further mating. Convergent evolutionary solutions to reproductive competition are demonstrated by these various tactics.

References

  1. ↑ Birkhead, Tim (2000) (in en). Promiscuity: An Evolutionary History of Sperm Competition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00666-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=3i4Q8SvohfEC&pg=PA51. 
  2. ↑ Grafen, Alan; Ridley, Mark (1983). "A model of mate guarding" (in en). Journal of Theoretical Biology 102 (4): 549–567. doi:10.1016/0022-5193(83)90390-9. Bibcode: 1983JThBi.102..549G. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0022519383903909. 
  3. ↑ Elias, Damian O.; Sivalinghem, Senthurran; Mason, Andrew C.; Andrade, Maydianne C.B.; Kasumovic, Michael M. (2014). "Mate-guarding courtship behaviour: tactics in a changing world" (in en). Animal Behaviour 97: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.08.007. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S000334721400311X. 
  4. ↑ Buss, David M. (2002). "Human mate guarding". Neuro Endocrinology Letters 23 (Suppl 4): 23–29. ISSN 0172-780X. PMID 12496732. 
  5. ↑ Leivers, Samantha; Simmons, Leigh W. (2014), "Human Sperm Competition" (in en), Advances in the Study of Behavior (Elsevier) 46: pp. 1–44, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800286-5.00001-8, ISBN 978-0-12-800286-5, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128002865000018, retrieved 2024-03-03 
  6. ↑ Hosseini, Seyed Ali; van Wijk, Michiel; Ke, Gao; Goldansaz, Seyed Hossein; Schal, Coby; Groot, Astrid T. (2016). "Experimental evidence for chemical mate guarding in a moth" (in en). Scientific Reports 6 (1). doi:10.1038/srep38567. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 27934963. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...638567H. 
  7. ↑ Steele, B. B.; Lehikoinen, A.; Öst, M.; Kilpi, M. (2007). "The cost of mate guarding in the Common Eider" (in en). Ornis Fennica 84 (2): 49–56. ISSN 0030-5685. https://ornisfennica.journal.fi/article/view/133680. 
  8. ↑ Alcock, J (1994). "Postinsemination Associations Between Males and Females in Insects: The Mate-Guarding Hypothesis" (in en). Annual Review of Entomology 39 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.000245. ISSN 0066-4170. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.39.010194.000245. 
  9. ↑ Zuk, Marlene (2011). "Animal Behavior: Stay Close for Comfort" (in en). Current Biology 21 (21): R885–R886. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.09.043. PMID 22075426. Bibcode: 2011CBio...21.R885Z. 
  10. ↑ Jormalainen, Veijo (1998). "Precopulatory Mate Guarding in Crustaceans: Male Competitive Strategy and Intersexual Conflict". The Quarterly Review of Biology 73 (3): 275–304. doi:10.1086/420306. ISSN 0033-5770. 
  11. ↑ Parker, G.A. (1979), "SEXUAL SELECTION AND SEXUAL CONFLICT", Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects (Elsevier): pp. 123–166, ISBN 978-0-12-108750-0, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-108750-0.50010-0, retrieved 2026-03-06 
  12. ↑ JENNIONS, MICHAEL D.; PETRIE, MARION (May 1995). "Why do females mate multiply? A review of the genetic benefits". Biological Reviews 75 (1): 21–64. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185x.1999.tb00040.x. ISSN 1464-7931. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185x.1999.tb00040.x. 
  13. ↑ Birkhead, T.R.; Møller, A.P. (1998), "Sperm Competition, Sexual Selection and Different Routes to Fitness", Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection (Elsevier): pp. 757–781, ISBN 978-0-12-100543-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012100543-6/50042-8, retrieved 2026-03-06 
  14. ↑ Eberhard, William (1996-12-31). Female Control. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20720-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691207209. 
  15. ↑ "Figure 4—figure supplement 3. Sex comb melanization is required for male mating success with y1 females.". https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.49388.023. 
  16. ↑ SIMMONS, LEIGH W. (2019-12-31). Sperm Competition and Its Evolutionary Consequences in the Insects. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20703-2. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvs32sr2. 
  17. ↑ Eberhard, William (1996-12-31). Female Control. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20720-9. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691207209. 
  18. ↑ Birkhead, T.R.; Møller, A.P. (1998), "Sperm Competition, Sexual Selection and Different Routes to Fitness", Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection (Elsevier): pp. 757–781, ISBN 978-0-12-100543-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012100543-6/50042-8, retrieved 2026-03-06 
  19. ↑ FERNS, P (May 1995). "Sexual selection by M. Andersson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. xx+599 pp. ISBN 0 691 03344 7. E19.95". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 55 (1): 92. doi:10.1016/0024-4066(95)90031-4. ISSN 0024-4066. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-4066(95)90031-4. 
  20. ↑ Sparks, John (October 1984). "Animal Behaviour: an Evolutionary Approach, 3rd editionJohn Alcock Sinauer Associates, Massachusetts, 1984, £19·80". Oryx 18 (4): 251–251. doi:10.1017/s0030605300019323. ISSN 0030-6053. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300019323. 
  21. ↑ Birkhead, T.R.; Møller, A.P. (1998), "Sperm Competition, Sexual Selection and Different Routes to Fitness", Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection (Elsevier): pp. 757–781, ISBN 978-0-12-100543-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012100543-6/50042-8, retrieved 2026-03-06 
  22. ↑ Matthews, G.V.T. (February 1982). "Behavioural Ecology: an evolutionary approach, edited by J.R. Krebs and N.B. Davies. Blackwell Scientific Publications, £18.95. hardback, £8.50 paperback.". Oryx 16 (3): 284–285. doi:10.1017/s0030605300017567. ISSN 0030-6053. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300017567. 
  23. ↑ Zwick, Peter (January 2001). "CORBET, P.S. (1999): Dragonflies: Behaviour and Ecology of Odonata". Aquatic Insects 23 (1): 83–83. doi:10.1076/aqin.23.1.83.4929. ISSN 0165-0424. https://doi.org/10.1076/aqin.23.1.83.4929. 
  24. ↑ Birkhead, T.R. (1998), "Sperm Competition in Birds: Mechanisms and Function", Sperm Competition and Sexual Selection (Elsevier): pp. 579–622, ISBN 978-0-12-100543-6, https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012100543-6/50039-8, retrieved 2026-03-06 
  25. ↑ SIMMONS, LEIGH W. (2019-12-31). Sperm Competition and Its Evolutionary Consequences in the Insects. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20703-2. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvs32sr2. 



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