Biology:Pumpkin

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Short description: Category of culinary winter Cucurbita squashes
A pile of pumpkins at the French Market in New Orleans, Louisiana
A variety of pumpkin cultivars
A field of giant pumpkins

A pumpkin, in English-language vernacular, is a cultivated winter squash in the genus Cucurbita.[1][2] The term is most commonly applied to round, orange-colored squash varieties, though it does not possess a scientific definition and may be used in reference to many different squashes of varied appearance.[3]

The use of the word "pumpkin" is thought to have originated in New England in North America, derived from a word for melon, or a native word for round. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with "squash" or "winter squash", and is commonly used for some cultivars of Cucurbita argyrosperma, Cucurbita ficifolia, Cucurbita maxima, Cucurbita moschata, and Cucurbita pepo.[1]

C. pepo pumpkins are among the oldest known domesticated plants, with evidence of their cultivation dating to between 7000 BCE and 5500 BCE. Wild species of Cucurbita and the earliest domesticated species are native to North America (parts of present-day northeastern Mexico and the southern United States ), but cultivars are now grown globally for culinary, decorative, and other culturally-specific purposes.[4]

The pumpkin's thick shell contains edible seeds and pulp. Pumpkin pie is a traditional part of Thanksgiving meals in Canada and the United States and pumpkins are frequently used as autumnal seasonal decorations and carved as jack-o'-lanterns for decoration around Halloween. Commercially canned pumpkin purée and pie fillings are usually made of different pumpkin varieties from those intended for decorative use.[5]

Etymology and terminology

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English word pumpkin derives from the Ancient Greek word πέπων (romanized pepōn), meaning 'melon'.[6][7] Under this theory, the term transitioned through the Latin word peponem and the Middle French word pompon to the Early Modern English pompion, which was changed to pumpkin by 17th-century English colonists, shortly after encountering pumpkins upon their arrival in what is now the northeastern United States.[6]

There is a proposed alternate derivation for pumpkin from the Massachusett word pôhpukun, meaning 'grows forth round'.[8] This term could have been used by the Wampanoag people (who speak the Wôpanâak dialect of Massachusett) when introducing pumpkins to English Pilgrims at Plymouth Colony, located in present-day Massachusetts .[9] (The English word squash is derived from a Massachusett word, variously transcribed as askꝏtasquash,[10] ashk8tasqash, or, in the closely related Narragansett language, askútasquash.)[11]

Researchers have noted that the term pumpkin and related terms like ayote and calabaza are applied to a range of winter squash with varying size and shape.[1] The term tropical pumpkin is sometimes used for pumpkin cultivars of the species Cucurbita moschata.[12]

Description

Cross section of a Cucurbita maxima pumpkin

Pumpkin fruits are a type of berry known as a pepo.[13] Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin[14] and deep yellow to orange color,[14] although white, green, and other pumpkin colors also exist.[15]

While Cucurbita pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 3 and 8 kilograms (6 and 18 lb), giant pumpkins can exceed a tonne in mass.[16][17] Most are varieties of C. maxima that were developed through the efforts of botanical societies and enthusiast farmers.[16] The largest cultivars frequently reach weights of over 34 kg (75 lb). In October 2023, the record for heaviest pumpkin was set at 1,246.9 kg (2,749 lbs.).[18]

History

The oldest evidence of Cucurbita pepo are pumpkin fragments found in Mexico that are dated between 7,000 and 5,500 BC.[19] Pumpkins and other squash species, alongside maize and beans, feature in the Three Sisters method of companion planting practiced by many North American indigenous societies.[20] However, larger modern pumpkin cultivars are typically excluded, as their weight may damage the other crops.[21] Within decades after Europeans began colonizing North America, illustrations of pumpkins similar to the modern cultivars Small Sugar pumpkin and Connecticut Field pumpkin were published in Europe.[13]

Cultivation

Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted by early July in the Northern Hemisphere. Pumpkins require that soil temperatures 8 centimetres (3 in) deep are at least 15.5 °C (60 °F) and that the soil holds water well. Pumpkin crops may suffer if there is a lack of water, because of temperatures below 18 °C or 65 °F, or if grown in soils that become waterlogged. Within these conditions, pumpkins are considered hardy, and even if many leaves and portions of the vine are removed or damaged, the plant can quickly grow secondary vines to replace what was removed.[22]

Pumpkins produce both a male and female flower, with fertilization usually performed by bees.[22] In America, pumpkins have historically been pollinated by the native squash bee, Peponapis pruinosa, but that bee has declined, probably partly due to pesticide (imidacloprid) sensitivity.[23] Ground-based bees, such as squash bees and the eastern bumblebee, are better suited to manage the larger pollen particles that pumpkins create.[24][25] One hive per acre (0.4 hectares, or five hives per 2 hectares) is recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. If there are inadequate bees for pollination, gardeners may have to hand pollinate. Inadequately pollinated pumpkins usually start growing but fail to develop.

Production

Pumpkin production – 2020
(includes squash and gourds)
Country millions of tonnes
 China 7.4
 India 5.1
 Ukraine 1.3
 Russia 1.1
 United States 1.1
 Spain 0.8
World 28.0
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations [26]

In 2020, world production of pumpkins (including squash and gourds) was 28 million tonnes, with China accounting for 27% of the total. Ukraine and Russia each produced about one million tonnes.[26]

In the United States

A pumpkin patch in Winchester, Oregon

As one of the most popular crops in the United States, in 2017 over 680 million kilograms (1.5 billion pounds) of pumpkins were produced.[22] The top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana , Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California .[4] Pumpkin is the state squash of Texas .[27]

According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95 percent of the U.S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois.[28] Indeed, 41 percent of the overall pumpkin crop for all uses originates in the state, more than five times that of the nearest competitor, California, whose pumpkin industry is centered in the San Joaquin Valley; and the majority of that comes from five counties in the central part of the state.[29] Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libby's, produces 85 percent of the processed pumpkin in the United States at their plant in Morton, Illinois.

In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Libby's pumpkin crop, which, combined with a relatively weak 2008 crop depleting that year's reserves, resulted in a shortage affecting the entire country during the Thanksgiving holiday season.[30] Another shortage, somewhat less severe, affected the 2015 crop.[31][32]

The pumpkin crop in the western United States, which constitutes approximately three to four percent of the national crop, is grown primarily for the organic market.[33] Terry County, Texas, has a substantial pumpkin industry, centered largely on miniature pumpkins.[29] Illinois farmer Sarah Frey is called "the Pumpkin Queen of America" and sells around five million pumpkins annually, predominantly for use as Jack-o-lanterns.[34][35]

Nutrition

Pumpkin, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy109 kJ (26 kcal)
6.5 g
Sugars2.76 g
Dietary fiber0.5 g
0.1 g
1 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
53%
426 μg
29%
3100 μg
1500 μg
Thiamine (B1)
4%
0.05 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
9%
0.11 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.6 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
6%
0.298 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.061 mg
Folate (B9)
4%
16 μg
Vitamin C
11%
9 mg
Vitamin E
3%
0.44 mg
Vitamin K
1%
1.1 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
2%
21 mg
Iron
6%
0.8 mg
Magnesium
3%
12 mg
Manganese
6%
0.125 mg
Phosphorus
6%
44 mg
Potassium
7%
340 mg
Sodium
0%
1 mg
Zinc
3%
0.32 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water91.6 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

In a 100-gram (3.5 oz) amount, raw pumpkin provides 110 kilojoules (26 kilocalories) of food energy and is an excellent source (20% or more the Daily Value, DV) of provitamin A beta-carotene and vitamin A (53% DV) (table). Vitamin C is present in moderate content (11% DV), but no other nutrients are in significant amounts (less than 10% DV, table). Pumpkin is 92% water, 6.5% carbohydrate, 0.1% fat and 1% protein (table).

Uses

Culinary

Pumpkin pie is a popular way of preparing pumpkin
Roasted pumpkin

Most parts of the pumpkin plant are edible, including the fleshy shell, the seeds, the leaves, and the flowers. When ripe, the pumpkin can be boiled, steamed, or roasted.

Shell and flesh

In North America, pumpkins are part of the traditional autumn harvest, eaten roasted, as mashed pumpkin[36] and in soups and pumpkin bread. Pumpkin pie is a traditional staple of the Canadian and American Thanksgiving holidays.[37] Pumpkin purée is sometimes prepared and frozen for later use.[38]

Flowers

A pumpkin flower, one of the edible parts of the plant

In the southwestern United States and Mexico, pumpkin and squash flowers are a popular and widely available food item. They may be used to garnish dishes, or dredged in a batter then fried in oil.

Leaves

Pumpkin leaves are also eaten in Zambia, where they are called chibwabwa and are boiled and cooked with groundnut paste as a side dish.[39]

Seeds

Pumpkin seeds (matured)

Pumpkin seeds, also known as pepitas, are edible and nutrient-rich. They are about 1.5 cm (0.5 in) long, flat, asymmetrically oval, light green in color and usually covered by a white husk, although some pumpkin varieties produce seeds without them. Pumpkin seeds are a popular snack that can be found hulled or semi-hulled at grocery stores. Per ounce serving, pumpkin seeds are a good source of protein, magnesium, copper and zinc.[40]

Pumpkin seed oil

Pumpkin seed oil is a thick oil pressed from roasted seeds that appears red or green in color.[41][42] When used for cooking or as a salad dressing, pumpkin seed oil is generally mixed with other oils because of its robust flavor.[43] Pumpkin seed oil contains fatty acids such as oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.[44]

Animal feed

Pumpkin seed meal from Cucurbita maxima and Cucurbita moschata have been demonstrated to improve the nutrition of eggs for human consumption, and Cucurbita pepo seed has successfully been used in place of soybean in chicken feed.[45]

Culture

Halloween

A pumpkin carved into a jack-o'-lantern for Halloween

In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween.[46] The practice of carving produce for Halloween originated from an Irish myth about a man named "Stingy Jack".[4] The practice of carving pumpkin jack-o'-lanterns for the Halloween season developed from a traditional practice in Ireland as well as Scotland and other parts of the United Kingdom of carving lanterns from the turnip, mangelwurzel, or swede (rutabaga).[47][48] These vegetables continue to be popular choices today as carved lanterns in Scotland and Northern Ireland, although the British purchased a million pumpkins for Halloween in 2004 reflecting the spread of pumpkin carving in the United Kingdom.[49]

Immigrants to North America began using the native pumpkins for carving, which are both readily available and much larger – making them easier to carve than turnips.[48] Not until 1837 does jack-o'-lantern appear as a term for a carved vegetable lantern,[50] and the carved pumpkin lantern association with Halloween is recorded in 1866.[51]

The traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut field variety.[4][52][53][54] Kentucky field pumpkin is also among the pumpkin cultivars grown specifically for jack-o-lantern carving.[13]

Chunking

Pumpkin chunking is a competitive activity in which teams build various mechanical devices designed to throw a pumpkin as far as possible. Catapults, trebuchets, ballistas and air cannons are the most common mechanisms.[55]

Pumpkin festivals and competitions

Giant Cucurbita maxima pumpkins

Growers of giant pumpkins often compete to grow the most massive pumpkins. Festivals may be dedicated to the pumpkin and these competitions. In the United States, the town of Half Moon Bay, California, holds an annual Art and Pumpkin Festival, including the World Champion Pumpkin Weigh-Off.[56]

The record for the world's heaviest pumpkin, 1,226 kg (2,703 lb), was established in Italy in 2021.[17]

Folk medicine

Pumpkins have been used as folk medicine by Native Americans to treat intestinal worms and urinary ailments, and this Native American remedy was adopted by American doctors in the early nineteenth century as an anthelmintic for the expulsion of worms.[57][qualify evidence] In Germany and southeastern Europe, seeds of C. pepo were also used as folk remedies to treat irritable bladder and benign prostatic hyperplasia.[58][59][qualify evidence]

In China, C. moschata seeds were also used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of the parasitic disease schistosomiasis[60] and for the expulsion of tape worms.[61][qualify evidence]

Folklore and fiction

There is a connection in folklore and popular culture between pumpkins and the supernatural, such as:

  • The custom of carving jack-o-lanterns from pumpkins derives from folklore about a lost soul wandering the earth.
  • In the fairy tale Cinderella, the fairy godmother turns a pumpkin into a carriage for the title character, but at midnight it reverts to a pumpkin.
  • In some adaptations of Washington Irving's ghost story The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, the headless horseman is said to use a pumpkin as a substitute head.

In most folklore the carved pumpkin is meant to scare away evil spirits on All Hallows' Eve (that is, Halloween), when the dead were purported to walk the earth.

Cultivars

The species and varieties include many economically important cultivars with a variety of different shapes, colors, and flavors that are grown for different purposes. Variety is used here interchangeably with cultivar, but not with species or taxonomic variety.

Image Name Species Origin Description
Al Hachi Cucurbita moschata Kashmir The people of Kashmir dry Al Hachi pumpkins to eat in the winter, when snowfall can isolate the valley.[62]
Big Max at Dutchess County Fair.JPG Big Max Cucurbita maxima United States Big Max can exceed 100 pounds (45 kg) and 20 in (510 mm) in diameter under ideal growing conditions.[63] The variety was hybridized for its size during the early 1960s.[64] Individual fruits are round to slightly flattened.[65][66]
Kalabasa (Calabaza) squash from the Philippines.jpg Calabaza Cucurbita moschata Cuba and West Indies The calabaza is a variety originating in Cuba and the West Indies. It is also cultivated in the Philippines and United States .[67]
Cucurbita moschata.jpg Cheese pumpkin Cucurbita moschata North America, possibly from an origin in Central America[68] So-called for its resemblance to a wheel of cheese, this cultivar has been noted for its long storage ability as well as relatively poor culinary characteristics.[69][13] One of Duchesne's 1786 botanical illustrations depicts a fruit that has been identified with the Cheese Pumpkin.[67]
Connecticut Field cultivar of Cucurbita pepo.jpg Connecticut field pumpkin Cucurbita pepo North America[13] Considered to be "one of the oldest pumpkins in existence".[70] Widely used for autumn decorations, either whole or as jack-o'-lanterns.[71]
Dickinson pumpkin Cucurbita moschata North America The oblong, ribbed fruits weigh up to 40 pounds and are widely used for canning. Derived from the Kentucky field pumpkin by Elijah Dickinson when he moved to Illinois in 1835.[72] Libby's Select is classified either as a selection from the Dickinson Pumpkin or a selection from the same parent lineage.[73][74][75][76]
Howard Dill's Pumpkin Patch.jpg Dill's Atlantic Giant Cucurbita maxima North America Dill's Atlantic Giant was bred by Howard Dill from sources including the Mammoth Pumpkin variety.[77][78] The variety were patented in 1979, who then went on to set the giant pumpkin in 1980 with a 459 lb (208 kg) record.[79]
Cucurbita maxima - Courge galeuse d'Eysines01.jpg Galeux d'Eysines Cucurbita maxima France The Galeux d'Eysines is mentioned in the Vilmorin-Andrieux vegetable catalogue Les Plantes Potagères in 1883. It is noted for peanut-sized growths on its skin, caused by a buildup of sugar. Its name may have originally been Brodé galeux d'Eysines, translating to embroidered with scabs, from Eysines. Immature pumpkins can be etched with words or designs that become warts as it matures. Galeux d'Eysines was reportedly brought to the United States in 1996 from the Foire aux Potirons pumpkin festival in Tranzault, France by author Amy Goldman.[80][81]
Japanese Pie Pumpkin - detail from Hastings seeds - Spring 1912 catalogue (1912) (14802567053).jpg Japanese pie pumpkin Cucurbita argyrosperma Pennsylvania The Japanese pie pumpkin is so-called because its seeds become crazed, resembling to Americans the appearance of Chinese characters or Japanese kanji. This variety was introduced by Samuel Wilson of Pennsylvania in 1884.[13]
Jarrahdale Pumpkin Vine.jpg Jarrahdale pumpkin Cucurbita maxima Australia A variety with a blue-gray skin, named after the Western Australian town of Jarrahdale. The Jarrahdale closely resembles the Queensland Blue. It cuts easily, and has orange, sweet-tasting flesh.[82][83]
Jonathan pumpkin[13][84] Cucurbita argyrosperma Available commercially as early as 1891 from Livingston Seed.[13] The name Jonathan may originate as a form of melioration against the character of Brother Jonathan which was sometimes used as mocking personification of the United States by satirists in Europe.[85] Brother Jonathan was also used within the United States either as characterizing the epitome of thrift and industriousness, or an unsophisticated bumpkin.[86]
Kabocha.jpg Kabocha Cucurbita maxima Japan Kabocha is the general Japanese word for winter squashes.[87][88] In English, the term "kobacha" is usually used for a green-skinned cultivar derived from buttercup squash.
Kentucky field pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Cuba, Mexico, or the United States Kentucky field pumpkin is among the pumpkin cultivars grown specifically for jack-o-lantern carving.[69] It has been classified as part of a group of Cucurbita moschata cultivars historically grown by the Seminole people of the United States southeast, as well as by farmers in Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. Similar cultivars were identified in Cuba as well as coastal and southern Mexico.[89]
Musquee de Provence.jpg Musquée de Provence, Moscata di Provenza or fairytale pumpkin Cucurbita moschata France A large pumpkin from France with sweet, fragrant, deep-orange flesh often sold by the slice due to its size.[90]
Seminole pumpkin fruit.jpg Seminole pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Florida A landrace originally cultivated by the Seminole people of what is now Florida. Naturalists in the 18th century recorded Seminole pumpkins growing with their vines hanging from trees.[91][92]
Cucurbita pepo var. styriaca05.jpg Styrian pumpkin Cucurbita pepo Styria Styrian pumpkins (Cucurbita pepo subsp. pepo var. styriaca or var. oleifera) have hull-less seeds, which are used in Austria and Slovenia as part of a pumpkin seed oil industry that presses their roasted seeds.[93][94]
Sugar Pumpkins.jpg Sugar pumpkin Cucurbita pepo North America The sugar pumpkin is one of the earliest varieties of pumpkin documented by European colonists upon arrival in North America. It has sweeter flesh than the similar but larger Connecticut Field pumpkin from which sugar pumpkins may have been selected.[13]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Ferriol, María; Picó, Belén (2008). "Pumpkin and Winter Squash". Vegetables I. Handbook of Plant Breeding. 1. New York: Springer. p. 317. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30443-4_10. ISBN 978-0-387-72291-7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226740091. "The common terms "pumpkin", "squash", "gourd", "cushaw", "ayote", "zapallo", "calabaza", etc. are often applied indiscriminately to different cultivated species of the New World genus Cucurbita L. (Cucurbitaceae): C. pepo L., C.  maxima Duchesne, C. moschata Duchesne, C. argyrosperma C. Huber and C. ficifolia Bouché." 
  2. ↑ United States Agricultural Research Service. Crops Research Division (1969). Growing pumpkins and squashes [Rev. June 1969. National Agricultural Library U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off. http://archive.org/details/CAT70292885. 
  3. ↑ "Horticulture Questions and Answers". Garden Help FAQ. Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/gardens-gardening/your-garden/help-for-the-home-gardener/advice-tips-resources/gardening-help-faqs.aspx?questionid=274&afmid=4462. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Wolford, Ron; Banks, Drusilla (2008). "Pumpkins and More". University of Illinois Extension. http://urbanext.illinois.edu/pumpkins/. 
  5. ↑ "Canned Vegetables: Product Descriptions" (in en). Handbook of Vegetable Preservation and Processing. CRC Press. 2003-09-12. pp. 163–191. doi:10.1201/9780203912911. ISBN 9780203912911. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9780203912911-13/canned-vegetables-product-descriptions-peggy-stanfield. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Pumpkin". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper Ltd. 2020. https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=pumpkin. 
  7. ↑ Paris, Harry S. (1989). "Historical Records, Origins, and Development of the Edible Cultivar Groups of Cucurbita pepo (Cucurbitaceae)". Economic Botany (New York Botanical Garden Press) 43 (4): 423–443. doi:10.1007/bf02935916. 
  8. ↑ "Fun With Words". https://www.wlrp.org/fun-with-words. 
  9. ↑ Kelly, Nataly (2012). Found in Translation: How Language Shapes Our Lives and Transforms The World. New York: Perigee. ISBN 9780399537974. 
  10. ↑ Trumbull, James Hammond (1903). Natick Dictionary. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 224. 
  11. ↑ "Definition of Squash". http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/squash. 
  12. ↑ Andres, T.C. (2004). "Diversity in tropical pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata): cultivar origin and history". Progress in Cucurbit Genetics and Breeding Research. https://cucurbit.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/cuc2004proceedings.pdf#page=113. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 Goldman, Amy (2004). The Compleat Squash: A Passionate Grower's Guide to Pumpkins, Squash, and Gourds. New York: Artisan. ISBN 978-1579652517. https://archive.org/embed/compleatsquashpa0000gold. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Pumpkins in Florida". Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. http://solutionsforyourlife.ufl.edu/hot_topics/lawn_and_garden/pumpkins.html. 
  15. ↑ "White Pumpkins Hit the Halloween Market". NBC News. October 26, 2005. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/9827573/ns/us_news-life/t/white-pumpkins-hit-halloween-market/#.UlXl3hATXh0. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Borrell, Brenda (October 2011). "The Great Pumpkin". The Smithsonian Institution. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-great-pumpkin-74423844/?no-ist=&page=1. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Bruno Waterfield (2021-10-01). "Belgian Mario Vangeel hopes to squash Italian's giant pumpkin record at world championship". The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/belgian-hopes-to-squash-italians-giant-pumpkin-record-htzdnvq0w. 
  18. ↑ "Pumpkin weighing 2,749 pounds wins contest and sets world record for biggest gourd" (in en). 2023-10-10. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/pumpkin-weighing-2749-pounds-wins-contest-sets-world-record-biggest-go-rcna119649. 
  19. ↑ "Pick a Pumpkin from Massachusetts". Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources. https://blog.mass.gov/blog/living-in-massachusetts/pick-a-pumpkin-from-massachusetts-this-october/. 
  20. ↑ Mt.Pleasant, Jane (2016-11-10). "Food Yields and Nutrient Analyses of the Three Sisters: A Haudenosaunee Cropping System" (in en). Ethnobiology Letters 7 (1): 87–98–87–98. doi:10.14237/ebl.7.1.2016.721. ISSN 2159-8126. https://ojs.ethnobiology.org/index.php/ebl/article/view/721. 
  21. ↑ "Plant a Three Sisters Garden: Corn, Beans, and Squash | The Old Farmer's Almanac" (in en). 26 May 2022. https://www.almanac.com/content/three-sisters-corn-bean-and-squash. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Astill, Gregory (2018). "Pumpkins: Background & Statistics". United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service. https://www.ers.usda.gov/newsroom/trending-topics/pumpkins-background-statistics/. 
  23. ↑ Williams, Roger (2009). "Effects of imidacloprid-based Insecticides on the Native Cucurbit Pollinator, Peponapis pruinosa". US Interagency IPM Projects. http://projects.ipm.gov/ProjectDetails.cfm?project_ID=749. 
  24. ↑ Canto-Aguilar, M.L.; Parra-Tabla, V. (2000). "Importance of Conserving Alternative Pollinators: Assessing the Pollination Efficiency of the Squash Bee, Peponapis limitaris in Cucurbita moschata (Cucurbitaceae)". Journal of Insect Conservation 4 (3): 201–208. doi:10.1023/A:1009685422587. 
  25. ↑ Tepedino, V. J. (April 1981). "The pollination efficiency of the squash bee (Peponapis pruinosa) and the honey bee (Apis mellifera) on summer squash (Cucurbita pepo)". Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 54 (2): 359–377. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 "Pumpkin production in 2019 (includes squash and gourds), Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2021. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. 
  27. ↑ Hatch, Rosie (Ed.) (2022). Texas Almanac 2022-2023. Austin, Texas: Texas State Historical Association. p. 23. ISBN 9781625110664. 
  28. ↑ Illinois Department of Agriculture (October 22, 2004). "Illinois Leads Nation in Pumpkin Production". http://www.agr.state.il.us/newsrels/r1022041.html. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Ramos, Elliot (October 22, 2021). "Map: Where America's pumpkins come from". NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/map-where-america-s-pumpkins-come-n1281963. 
  30. ↑ Hirsch, Jerry (November 18, 2009). "Pumpkin pie could become scarce after Thanksgiving". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2009/nov/18/business/fi-pumpkin18. 
  31. ↑ "News - Pumpkin shortage in the U.S. has Canada to the rescue - The Weather Network". https://www.theweathernetwork.com/news/articles/pumpkin-shortage-in-the-us-has-canada-to-the-rescue/58621/. 
  32. ↑ "Here's What Happened to the Great Pumpkin Shortage of 2015". https://fortune.com/2015/11/26/thanksgiving-pumpkin-shortage/. 
  33. ↑ Severson, Kim (November 17, 2009). "Libby's Warns of a Canned Pumpkin Shortage". The New York Times. http://dinersjournal.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/17/libbys-warns-of-a-canned-pumpkin-shortage/. 
  34. ↑ "Pumpkins: from decoration to delicacy". Produce Retailer. August 25, 2017. https://www.produceretailer.com/article/news-article/pumpkins-decoration-delicacy. 
  35. ↑ "Elaine Reeves: For love of gourd". The Mercury. March 4, 2017. http://www.themercury.com.au/lifestyle/elaine-reeves-for-love-of-gourd/news-story/f60577a9e47a8fe1d006dbd8409e714a. 
  36. ↑ Stavely, Keith W.F. and Fitzgerald, Kathleen. America's Founding Food: The Story of New England Cooking. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2004. ISBN:0-8078-2894-7
  37. ↑ Hogan, C. Michael (2011). "Thanksgiving". Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thanksgiving?topic=49578. 
  38. ↑ Roberts, Tammy. "Many uses for pumpkin". MissouriFamilies. University of Missouri Extension. http://missourifamilies.org/features/nutritionarticles/nut199.htm. 
  39. ↑ "Pumpkin Leaves Chibwabwa". Food and Agriculture Organization. http://www.fao.org/in-action/inpho/resources/cookbook/detail/en/c/862/. 
  40. ↑ "Nutrition facts for pumpkin seeds, whole, roasted, without salt". SELF Nutritiondata. Condé Nast Publications. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/nut-and-seed-products/3141/2. 
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  44. ↑ "Oil Pumpkins: Niche for Organic Producers". Issues in new crops and new uses. Purdue University Agriculture, Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. 2007. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu07/pdfs/bavec185-189.pdf. 
  45. ↑ Vlaicu, Petru Alexandru; Panaite, Tatiana Dumitra (2021-06-24). "Effect of dietary pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) seed meal on layer performance and egg quality characteristics" (in English). Animal Bioscience 35 (2): 236–246. doi:10.5713/ab.21.0044. ISSN 2765-0189. PMID 34293842. 
  46. ↑ The Day We Celebrate: Thanksgiving Treated Gastronomically and Socially, The New York Times, November 24, 1895, p. 27. "Odd Ornaments for Table", The New York Times, October 21, 1900, p. 12.
  47. ↑ Fowler, Julian (October 28, 2005). "Turnip battles with pumpkin for Hallowe'en". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4383216.stm. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 The Oxford companion to American food and drink. Oxford University Press. 2007. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-19-530796-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=AN7WAAAAMAAJ&q=candlelit+lanterns+were+carved+from+large+turnips. Retrieved February 17, 2011. 
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  50. ↑ Hawthorne, Nathaniel (1837). "The Great Carbuncle". Twice-Told Tales. "Hide it [the great carbuncle] under thy cloak, say'st thou? Why, it will gleam through the holes, and make thee look like a jack-o'-lantern!" 
  51. ↑ Daily News (Kingston, Ontario), November 1, 1866:
    The old time custom of keeping up Hallowe'en was not forgotten last night by the youngsters of the city. They had their maskings and their merry-makings, and perambulated the streets after dark in a way [that] was no doubt amusing to themselves. There was a great sacrifice of pumpkins from which to make transparent heads and face, lighted up by the unfailing two inches of tallow candle.
  52. ↑ Richardson, R. W.. "Squash and Pumpkin". United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/cgc_reports/squash95.pdf. 
  53. ↑ Stephens, James M.. "Pumpkin — Cucurbita spp.". University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mv116. 
  54. ↑ Baggett, J. R.. "Attempts to Cross Cucurbita moschata (Duch.) Poir. 'Butternut' and C. pepo L. 'Delicata'". North Carolina State University. http://cuke.hort.ncsu.edu/cgc/cgc02/cgc2-19.html. 
  55. ↑ "How far will a pumpkin fly?". Associated Press. MSNBC. October 25, 2007. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21197135/. 
  56. ↑ "Half Moon Bay Art & Pumpkin Festival: A Brief History". Miramar Events. 2016. http://pumpkinfest.miramarevents.com/event-details/history.html. 
  57. ↑ Robert E. Henshaw, ed (2011). Environmental History of the Hudson River. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4026-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=tMCd1yED2EUC&pg=PA105. 
  58. ↑ Volker Schulz, ed (2004). Rational Phytotherapy: A Reference Guide for Physicians and Pharmacists (5th ed.). Munich: Springer. pp. 304–305. ISBN 978-3-540-40832-1. https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-3-662-09666-6. 
  59. ↑ "Pumpkin seed (Cucurbitae peponis semen)". Heilpflanzen-Welt Bibliothek. http://buecher.heilpflanzen-welt.de/BGA-Commission-E-Monographs/0309.htm. 
  60. ↑ Xiao, S. H.; Keiser, J.; Chen, M. G.; Tanner, M.; Utzinger, J. (2010). "Research and Development of Antischistosomal Drugs in the People's Republic of China a 60-year review". Advances in Parasitology 73: 231–295. doi:10.1016/S0065-308X(10)73009-8. PMID 20627145. 
  61. ↑ Wu, Yan; Fischer, Warren (1997). Practical Therapeutics of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Taos, NM: Paradigm Publications. pp. 282–283. ISBN 978-0-912111-39-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=KLd9v4hwtGgC&pg=PA283. 
  62. ↑ Sarkar, Sonia (September 16, 2019). "Kashmir, from A to Z: Children's book highlights region's culture". Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/kashmir-children-book-highlights-region-culture-190915140353211.html. 
  63. ↑ "Pumpkin Seed — Big Max Pumpkin". Gurney's Seed and Nursery Company. http://gurneys.com/product.asp?pn=66293&sid=601324&bhcd2=1254963239. 
  64. ↑ Earl Aronson (January 11, 1964). "The Weeders Guide". The Hartford Courant. https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/courant/access/919947832.html?dids=919947832:919947832&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Jan+11%2C+1964&author=&pub=Hartford+Courant&desc=The+WEEDERS+GUIDE&pqatl=google. 
  65. ↑ "Big Max Pumpkin is Monster". The Spokane Daily Chronicle. May 22, 1964. https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=PZgSAAAAIBAJ&pg=7178,5315473. 
  66. ↑ "Pumpkin". Aggie Horticulture. http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/plantanswers/vegetables/pumpkin.html. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Andres, T.C. (2019). "Diversity in tropical pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata): a review of infraspecific classifications". Progress in Cucurbit Genetics and Breeding Research. https://cucurbit.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/cuc2004proceedings.pdf#page=107. 
  68. ↑ Vestal, Paul A. (1938). "Cucurbita Moschata Found in Pre-Columbian Mounds in Guatemala". Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 6 (4): 65–69. doi:10.5962/p.168392. ISSN 0006-8098. 
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Damerow, Gail (1997). The perfect pumpkin. Internet Archive. Pownal, Vt. : Storey Pub.. ISBN 978-0-88266-993-9. http://archive.org/details/perfectpumpkin0000dame. 
  70. ↑ "Abenaki Heritage Garden". USDA NRCS. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1101651.pdf. 
  71. ↑ "Gardening: Trick is to Plant Now for Halloween Treat". The L.A. Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1989-06-11/realestate/re-2959_1_pie-pumpkins-jack-o-lantern-pumpkins-connecticut-field. 
  72. ↑ "The Truth About "Canned Pumpkin" – Mother Earth Gardener" (in en-US). 2016-09-12. https://www.motherearthgardener.com/profiles/canned-pumpkin-zmaz12fzfol/. 
  73. ↑ "Best Heirloom Pumpkin Varieties - Grit" (in en-US). 2022-10-09. https://www.grit.com/farm-and-garden/vegetables/pumpkin-varieties-zm0znd13zgou/. 
  74. ↑ Laliberte, Marissa (2020-10-15). "What's Really in Canned Pumpkin, Anyway?" (in en-US). https://www.rd.com/article/is-canned-pumpkin-really-squash/. 
  75. ↑ CooksInfo. "Libby's Select Dickinson Pumpkins" (in en-US). https://www.cooksinfo.com/libbys-select-dickinson-pumpkins. 
  76. ↑ Splittstoesser, W. E. (1990-03-31) (in en). Vegetable Growing Handbook. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-442-23971-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=-yByu-GR4eEC. 
  77. ↑ Janick, Jules (2008). "Giant Pumpkins: Genetic and Cultural Breakthroughs". Chronica Horticulturae 48 (3): 16–17. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/giant-pumpkin.pdf. 
  78. ↑ Andres, Thomas (October 26, 2010). "Origin of the Giant Pumpkin". New York Botanical Garden. https://www.nybg.org/blogs/plant-talk/2010/10/garden-programming/origin-of-the-giant-pumpkin/. 
  79. ↑ "Great Pumpkin: Secret to Growing Giant Gourds" (in en). 2010-10-30. https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/growing-giant-pumpkins/story?id=12005986. 
  80. ↑ "Galeux d'Eysines Squash" (in en). https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Galeux_d_Eysines_Squash_9232.php. 
  81. ↑ "Peanut pumpkins - truly unique" (in en-US). 2021-11-03. https://www.morningagclips.com/peanut-pumpkins-truly-unique/. 
  82. ↑ Singleton, Bonnie (July 22, 2012). "Growing Jarrahdale". SF Gate. https://homeguides.sfgate.com/growing-jarrahdale-35632.html. 
  83. ↑ "Pumpkin: the complete guide". NewsLifeMedia. https://www.taste.com.au/healthy/articles/pumpkin/by9gk5go. 
  84. ↑ "Pumpkin: Cushaw White". https://gardenseedsandplants.com/pumpkin-cushaw-white/. 
  85. ↑ Ott, Cindy (2012-12-01) (in en). Pumpkin: The Curious History of an American Icon. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-80444-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=JJkcpAHkKHMC. 
  86. ↑ Finnegan, Mary (2022-09-19). "Pumpkin Season, Explained" (in en). https://medium.com/limited-liabilities-by-colbeck/pumpkin-season-explained-865487164009. 
  87. ↑ "Vegetable diagram (Kabocha)". Agriculture & Livestock Industries Corporation. https://vegetable.alic.go.jp/panfu/pumpkin/pumpkin.htm. 
  88. ↑ "What is Kabocha Squash (Japanese Pumpkin)?". Cooking Light Magazine. http://www.cookinglight.com/food/in-season/what-is-kabocha-squash. 
  89. ↑ Cutler, Hugh C.; Whitaker, Thomas W. (1961). "History and Distribution of the Cultivated Cucurbits in the Americas". American Antiquity 26 (4): 469–485. doi:10.2307/278735. ISSN 0002-7316. https://www.jstor.org/stable/278735. 
  90. ↑ "Squash". November 13, 2015. http://whatscookingamerica.net/squash.htm. 
  91. ↑ Castetter, Edward F. (1930). "Species Crosses in the Genus Cucurbita". American Journal of Botany 17 (1): 41–57. doi:10.2307/2446379. ISSN 0002-9122. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2446379. 
  92. ↑ "Seminole Pumpkin" (in en). https://www.echocommunity.org/resources/7c4508c7-a5bd-452b-8fd9-1ed9689fc5e8. 
  93. ↑ Fürnkranz, Michael; Lukesch, Birgit; Müller, Henry; Huss, Herbert; Grube, Martin; Berg, Gabriele (2012). "Microbial Diversity Inside Pumpkins: Microhabitat-Specific Communities Display a High Antagonistic Potential Against Phytopathogens". Microbial Ecology 63 (2): 418–428. doi:10.1007/s00248-011-9942-4. PMID 21947430. 
  94. ↑ Košťálová, Zuzana; Hromádková, Zdenka; Ebringerová, Anna (August 2009). "Chemical Evaluation of Seeded Fruit Biomass of Oil Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L. var. Styriaca)". Chemical Papers 63 (4): 406–413. doi:10.2478/s11696-009-0035-5. 

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