Biology:Pollinator decline

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Short description: Reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators
A dead carpenter bee

Pollinator decline is the reduction in abundance of insect and other animal pollinators in many ecosystems worldwide that began being recorded at the end of the 20th century. Multiple lines of evidence exist for the reduction of wild pollinator populations at the regional level, especially within Europe and North America.[1][2][3][4] Similar findings from studies in South America, China and Japan make it reasonable to suggest that declines are occurring around the globe.[5][6][7][8] The majority of studies focus on bees, particularly honeybee and bumblebee species, with a smaller number involving hoverflies and lepidopterans.[9][1][10][11][12]

The picture for domesticated pollinator species is less clear. Although the number of managed honey bee colonies in Europe and North America declined by 25% and 59% between 1985-2005 and 1947-2005 respectively, overall global stocks increased due to major hive number increases in countries such as China and Argentina.[13][14][15] Nevertheless, in the time managed honeybee hives increased by 45% demand for animal pollinated crops tripled, highlighting the danger of relying on domesticated populations for pollination services.[15]

Pollinators participate in the sexual reproduction of many plants by ensuring cross-pollination, essential for some species and a major factor in ensuring genetic diversity for others. Since plants are the primary food source for animals, the possible reduction or disappearance of pollinators has been referred to as an "armageddon" by some journalists.

Evidence

The declines in abundance and diversity of insect pollinators over the twentieth century have been documented in highly industrialized regions of the world, particularly northwestern Europe and eastern North America.[16][17][18]

Colony collapse disorder has attracted much public attention. According to a 2013 blog the winter losses of beehives had increased in recent years in Europe and the United States, with a hive failure rate up to 50%.[19]

A 2017 German study, using 1,500 samples from 63 sites, indicated that the biomass of flying insects in that area had declined by three-quarters in the previous 25 years.[20] One 2009 study stated that while the bee population had increased by 45% over the past 50 years, the amount of crops which use bees had increased by 300%; although there is absolutely no evidence this has caused any problems, the authors propose it might cause "future pollination problems".[21]

In mathematical models of the networks linking different plants and their many pollinators,[22] such a network can continue to function very well under increasingly harsh conditions, but when conditions become extremely harsh, the entire network fails simultaneously.[23]

A 2021 study described as the "first long-term assessment of global bee decline", which analyzed GBIF-data of over a century, found that the number of bee species declined steeply worldwide after the 1990s, shrinking by a quarter in 2006–2015 compared to before 1990.[24][25]

Possible explanations

Although the existence of pollinator decline can be difficult to determine, a number of possible reasons for the theoretical concept have been proposed, such as exposure to pathogens, parasites, and pesticides; habitat destruction; climate change; market forces; intra- and interspecific competition with native and invasive species; and genetic alterations.[26][27]

Honey bees are an invasive species throughout most of the world where they have been introduced, and the constant growth in the amount of these pollinators may possibly cause a decrease in native species.[21] Light pollution has been suggested a number of times as a possible reason for the possible decline in flying insects.[28][29][30][31] One study found that air pollution, such as from cars, has been inhibiting the ability of pollinators such as bees and butterflies to find the fragrances of flowers. Pollutants such as ozone, hydroxyl, and nitrate radicals bond quickly with volatile scent molecules of flowers, which consequently travel shorter distances intact. Pollinators must thus travel longer distances to find flowers.[32]

Pollinators may also face an increased risk of extinction because of global warming due to alterations in the seasonal behaviour of species. Climate change can cause bees to emerge at times in the year when flowering plants were not available.[33]

Consequences

Seven out of the ten most important crops in the world, in terms of volume, are pollinated by wind (maize, rice and wheat) or have vegetative propagation (banana, sugar cane, potato, beet, and cassava) and thus do not require animal pollinators for food production.[34] Additionally crops such as sugar beet, spinach and onions are self-pollinating and do not require insects.[35] Nonetheless, an estimated 87.5% of the world's flowering plant species are animal-pollinated,[36] and 60% of crop plant species[37] use animal pollinators. This includes the majority of fruits, many vegetables, and also fodder.[38] According to the USDA 80% of insect crop pollination in the US is due to honey bees.[39]

A study which examined how fifteen plant species said to be dependent on animals for pollination would be impacted by pollinator decline, by excluding pollinators from them with domes, found that while most species do not suffer any impacts from decline in terms of reduced fertilization rates (seed set), three species did.[40]

The expected direct reduction in total agricultural production in the US in the absence of animal pollination is expected to be 3 to 8%, with smaller impacts on agricultural production diversity.[41] Of all the possible consequences, the most important effect of pollinator decline for humans in Brazil, according to one 2016 study, would be the drop in income from high-value cash crops, and would impact the agricultural sector the most.[34] A 2000 study about the economic effects of the honey bee on US food crops calculated that it helped to produce US$14.6 billion in monetary value.[42] In 2009 another study calculated the worldwide value of the 100 crops that need pollinators at €153 billion (not including production costs).[43] Despite the dire predictions, the theorised decline in pollinators has had no effect on food production, with yields of both animal-pollinated and non-animal-pollinated crops increasing at the same rate, over the period of supposed pollinator decline.[44]

Possible nutritional consequences

Main page: Medicine:Vitamin A deficiency

A 2015 study looked at the nutritional consequences of pollinator decline. It investigated if four third world populations might in the future potentially be at possible risk of malnutrition, assuming humans did not change their diet or have access to supplements, but concluded that this cannot be reliably predicted. According to their model, the size of the effect that pollinator decline had on a population depends on the local diet, and vitamin A is the most likely nutrient to become deficient, as it is already deficient.[45]

More studies also identified vitamin A as the most pollinator-dependent nutrient.[46][47] Another 2015 study also modeled what would happen should 100% of pollinators die off. In that scenario, 71 million people in low-income countries would become deficient in vitamin A, and the vitamin A intake of 2.2 billion people who are already consuming less than the recommended amount would further decline. Similarly, 173 million people would become deficient in folate, and 1.23 million people would further lessen their intake. Additionally, the global fruit supply would decrease by 22.9%, the global vegetable supply would decrease by 16.3%, and the global supply of nuts and seeds would decrease by 22.1%. This would lead to 1.42 million additional deaths each year from diseases, as well as 27 million disability-adjusted life years. In a less extreme scenario wherein only 50% of pollinators die off, 700,000 additional deaths would occur each year, as well as 13.2 million disability-adjusted years.[48]

This a picture of a melon plant. Melon plants are crops requiring a pollinator and a good source of vitamin A
A melon plant, a crop requiring a pollinator and a good source of vitamin A

One study estimated that 70% of dietary vitamin A worldwide is found in crops that are animal pollinated, as well as 55% of folate. At present, eating plants which are pollinated by animals is responsible for only 9%, 20%, and 29% of calcium, fluoride, and iron intake, respectively, with most coming from meat and dairy. 74% of all globally produced lipids are found in oils from plants that are animal pollinated, as well as 98% of vitamin C.[47]

Solutions

Several scholars have called for application of the precautionary principle.[27][49]

Efforts are being made to sustain pollinator diversity in agricultural and natural ecosystems by some environmental groups.[50] In 2014 the Obama administration published "the Economic Challenge Posed by Declining Pollinator Populations" fact sheet, which stated that the 2015 budget proposal recommended congress appropriate approximately $50 million for pollinator habitat maintenance and to double the area in the Conservation Reserve Program dedicated to pollinator health, as well as recommending to "increase funding for surveys to determine the impacts on pollinator losses".[51]

Some international initiatives highlight the need for public participation and awareness of pollinator conservation.[52] Pollinators and their health have become growing concerns for the public. Around 18 states within America have responded to these concerns by creating legislation to address the issue. According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, the enacted legislation in those states addresses five specific areas relating to pollinator decline: awareness, research, pesticides, habitat protection and beekeeping.[53]

A 2021 global assessment of the drivers of pollinator decline found that "global policy responses should focus on reducing pressure from changes in land cover and configuration, land management and pesticides, as these were considered very important drivers in most regions".[54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Powney, Gary D.; Carvell, Claire; Edwards, Mike; Morris, Roger K. A.; Roy, Helen E.; Woodcock, Ben A.; Isaac, Nick J. B. (26 March 2019). "Widespread losses of pollinating insects in Britain". Nature Communications 10 (1): 1018. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-08974-9. PMID 30914632. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10.1018P. 
  2. ↑ Soroye, Peter; Newbold, Tim; Kerr, Jeremy (7 February 2020). "Climate change contributes to widespread declines among bumble bees across continents". Science 367 (6478): 685–688. doi:10.1126/science.aax8591. PMID 32029628. Bibcode: 2020Sci...367..685S. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10091324/. 
  3. ↑ Goulson, D.; Nicholls, E.; Botias, C.; Rotheray, E. L. (27 March 2015). "Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers". Science 347 (6229): 1255957. doi:10.1126/science.1255957. PMID 25721506. 
  4. ↑ Potts, Simon G.; Biesmeijer, Jacobus C.; Kremen, Claire; Neumann, Peter; Schweiger, Oliver; Kunin, William E. (June 2010). "Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25 (6): 345–353. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007. PMID 20188434. 
  5. ↑ Schmid-Hempel, Regula; Eckhardt, Michael; Goulson, David; Heinzmann, Daniel; Lange, Carlos; Plischuk, Santiago; Escudero, Luisa R.; Salathé, Rahel et al. (July 2014). "The invasion of southern South America by imported bumblebees and associated parasites". Journal of Animal Ecology 83 (4): 823–837. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12185. PMID 24256429. 
  6. ↑ Xie, Zhenghua; Williams, Paul H.; Tang, Ya (1 December 2008). "The effect of grazing on bumblebees in the high rangelands of the eastern Tibetan Plateau of Sichuan". Journal of Insect Conservation 12 (6): 695–703. doi:10.1007/s10841-008-9180-3. 
  7. ↑ Williams, Paul; Tang, Ya; Yao, Jian; Cameron, Sydney (1 June 2009). "The bumblebees of Sichuan (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Bombini)". Systematics and Biodiversity 7 (2): 101–189. doi:10.1017/S1477200008002843. 
  8. ↑ Inoue, Maki N.; Yokoyama, Jun; Washitani, Izumi (1 April 2008). "Displacement of Japanese native bumblebees by the recently introduced Bombus terrestris (L.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". Journal of Insect Conservation 12 (2): 135–146. doi:10.1007/s10841-007-9071-z. 
  9. ↑ Biesmeijer, J. C. (21 July 2006). "Parallel Declines in Pollinators and Insect-Pollinated Plants in Britain and the Netherlands". Science 313 (5785): 351–354. doi:10.1126/science.1127863. PMID 16857940. Bibcode: 2006Sci...313..351B. 
  10. ↑ Fox, Richard; Oliver, Tom H.; Harrower, Colin; Parsons, Mark S.; Thomas, Chris D.; Roy, David B. (August 2014). "Long‐term changes to the frequency of occurrence of British moths are consistent with opposing and synergistic effects of climate and land‐use changes". Journal of Applied Ecology 51 (4): 949–957. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12256. PMID 25954052. 
  11. ↑ Forister, Matthew L.; Jahner, Joshua P.; Casner, Kayce L.; Wilson, Joseph S.; Shapiro, Arthur M. (2011). "The race is not to the swift: Long-term data reveal pervasive declines in California's low-elevation butterfly fauna". Ecology 92 (12): 2222–2235. doi:10.1890/11-0382.1. PMID 22352162. 
  12. ↑ Semmens, Brice X.; Semmens, Darius J.; Thogmartin, Wayne E.; Wiederholt, Ruscena; López-Hoffman, Laura; Diffendorfer, Jay E.; Pleasants, John M.; Oberhauser, Karen S. et al. (September 2016). "Quasi-extinction risk and population targets for the Eastern, migratory population of monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus)" (in en). Scientific Reports 6: 23265. doi:10.1038/srep23265. PMID 26997124. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...623265S. 
  13. ↑ Potts, Simon G.; Roberts, Stuart P. M.; Dean, Robin; Marris, Gay; Brown, Mike A.; Jones, Richard; Neumann, Peter; Settele, Josef (1 January 2010). "Declines of managed honey bees and beekeepers in Europe". Journal of Apicultural Research 49 (1): 15–22. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.49.1.02. 
  14. ↑ vanEngelsdorp, Dennis; Hayes, Jerry Jr.; Underwood, Robyn M.; Pettis, Jeffery (30 December 2008). "A Survey of Honey Bee Colony Losses in the U.S., Fall 2007 to Spring 2008". PLOS ONE 3 (12): e4071. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004071. PMID 19115015. Bibcode: 2008PLoSO...3.4071V. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Aizen, Marcelo A.; Harder, Lawrence D. (June 2009). "The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees Is Growing Slower Than Agricultural Demand for Pollination". Current Biology 19 (11): 915–918. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.071. PMID 19427214. 
  16. ↑ Potts, Simon G.; Biesmeijer, Jacobus C.; Kremen, Claire; Neumann, Peter; Schweiger, Oliver; Kunin, William E. (June 2010). "Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25 (6): 345–353. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007. PMID 20188434. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534710000364. 
  17. ↑ Goulson, D.; Nicholls, E.; Botias, C.; Rotheray, E. L. (27 March 2015). "Bee declines driven by combined stress from parasites, pesticides, and lack of flowers". Science 347 (6229): 1255957. doi:10.1126/science.1255957. PMID 25721506. 
  18. ↑ Potts, Simon G.; Imperatriz-Fonseca, Vera; Ngo, Hien T.; Aizen, Marcelo A.; Biesmeijer, Jacobus C.; Breeze, Thomas D.; Dicks, Lynn V.; Garibaldi, Lucas A. et al. (December 2016). "Safeguarding pollinators and their values to human well-being". Nature 540 (7632): 220–229. doi:10.1038/nature20588. PMID 27894123. Bibcode: 2016Natur.540..220P. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature20588. 
  19. ↑ "Declining Bee Populations Pose a Threat to Global Agriculture". Yale Environment 360. 30 April 2013. http://e360.yale.edu/features/declining_bee_populations_pose_a_threat_to_global_agriculture. 
  20. ↑ Editor, Damian Carrington Environment (18 October 2017). "Warning of 'ecological Armageddon' after dramatic plunge in insect numbers". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/18/warning-of-ecological-armageddon-after-dramatic-plunge-in-insect-numbers. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Aizen, Marcelo A.; Harder, Lawrence D. (9 June 2009). "The Global Stock of Domesticated Honey Bees Is Growing Slower Than Agricultural Demand for Pollination". Current Biology 19 (11): 915–918. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.071. PMID 19427214. https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0960-9822%2809%2900982-8. Retrieved 10 September 2020. 
  22. ↑ Bascompte, J.; Jordano, P.; Melián, C. J.; Olesen, J. M. (2003). "The nested assembly of plant–animal mutualistic networks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100 (16): 9383–9387. doi:10.1073/pnas.1633576100. PMID 12881488. Bibcode: 2003PNAS..100.9383B. 
  23. ↑ Lever, J. J.; Nes, E. H.; Scheffer, M.; Bascompte, J. (2014). "The sudden collapse of pollinator communities". Ecology Letters 17 (3): 350–359. doi:10.1111/ele.12236. PMID 24386999. 
  24. ↑ Shah, Karina. "A quarter of all known bee species haven't been seen since the 1990s". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2265680-a-quarter-of-all-known-bee-species-havent-been-seen-since-the-1990s/. 
  25. ↑ Zattara, Eduardo E.; Aizen, Marcelo A. (22 January 2021). "Worldwide occurrence records suggest a global decline in bee species richness" (in English). One Earth 4 (1): 114–123. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.005. ISSN 2590-3330. Bibcode: 2021OEart...4..114Z. 
  26. ↑ Council, National Research; Studies, Division on Earth Life; Resources, Board on Agriculture Natural; Sciences, Board on Life; America, Committee on the Status of Pollinators in North (2007) (in en). 3 Causes of Pollinator Declines and Potential Threats | Status of Pollinators in North America | The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/11761. ISBN 978-0-309-10289-6. https://www.nap.edu/read/11761/chapter/5. "It is difficult to determine whether North American pollinator species are declining, and no less challenging is determining the causes of putative declines or local extirpations. Many explanations have been invoked to account for declines in pollinator populations in North America, including, among others, exposure to pathogens, parasites, and pesticides; habitat fragmentation and loss; climate change; market forces; intra- and inter-specific competition with native and invasive species; and genetic alterations. Careful evaluation of the literature allows some causes to be assigned, but explanations are ambiguous or elusive for other species losses. ... The best evidence of specific pollinator decline is seen in the western honey bee, Apis mellifera L., the primary commercial pollinator of agricultural crops in North America and the most widely used, actively managed pollinator in the world. The population losses among honey bees are elucidated in a large body of literature..." 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Rhodes, Christopher J. (2018). "Pollinator Decline – An Ecological Calamity in the Making?". Science Progress (SAGE Publications) 101 (2): 121–160. doi:10.3184/003685018x15202512854527. ISSN 0036-8504. PMID 29669627. "[To] know whether or not a wholesale decline in flying pollinators ... is occurring across the world is very difficult, due to an insufficiency of geographically widespread and long-term data. Bees, as the best documented species, can be seen to be suffering from chronic exposure to a range of stressors, which include: a loss of abundance and diversity of flowers, and a decline in suitable habitat for them to build nests; long-term exposure to agrochemicals, including pesticides such as neonicotinoids; and infection by parasites and pathogens, many inadvertently spread by the actions of humans. [Climate] change may impact further on particular pollinators... Moreover, the co-operative element of various different stress factors should be noted; thus, for example, exposure to pesticides is known to diminish detoxification mechanisms and also immune responses, hence lowering the resistance of bees to parasitic infections. [For] wild non-bee insects – principally moths and butterflies – where data are available, the picture is also one of significant population losses. Alarmingly, a recent study in Germany indicated that a decline in the biomass of flying insects had occurred by 76% in less than three decades, as sampled in nature reserves across the country. Accordingly, to fully answer the question ... ‘pollinator decline - an ecological calamity in the making?’ will require many more detailed, more geographically encompassing, more species-inclusive, and longer-term studies, but the available evidence points to a clear ‘probably’, and the precautionary principle would suggest this is not a prospect we can afford to ignore.". 
  28. ↑ "Light pollution a reason for insect decline!?" (in en). 19 June 2018. https://www.igb-berlin.de/en/news/light-pollution-reason-insect-decline. 
  29. ↑ "Nighttime Light Pollution May Be Cause of Insect Population Decline". September 2018. https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Nighttime_Light_Pollution_May_Be_Cause_of_Insect/a63612. 
  30. ↑ Insects, bats and artificial light at night: Measures to reduce the negative effects of light pollution in: dspace.library.uu.nl, retrieved 28 July 2018, author: Claudia Rieswijk (2015), Faculty of Science Theses (Master thesis), Utrecht university
  31. ↑ Longcore, Travis; Rich, Catherine (2004). "Ecological light pollution". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2 (4): 191–198. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0191:ELP2.0.CO;2]. 
  32. ↑ "Flowers' fragrance diminished by air pollution, University of Virginia study indicates". EurekAlert!. 10 April 2008. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-04/uov-ffd041008.php. 
  33. ↑ Gosden, Emily (2014-03-29). "Bees and the crops they pollinate are at risk from climate change, IPCC report to warn". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/10730667/Bees-and-the-crops-they-pollinate-are-at-risk-from-climate-change-IPCC-report-to-warn.html. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Novais, Samuel M. A.; Nunes, Cássio A.; Santos, Natália B.; D'Amico, Ana R.; Fernandes, G. Wilson; Quesada, Maurício; Braga, Rodrigo F.; Neves, Ana Carolina O. (30 November 2016). "Effects of a Possible Pollinator Crisis on Food Crop Production in Brazil". PLOS ONE 13 (5): e0167292. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167292. PMID 27902787. Bibcode: 2016PLoSO..1167292N. 
  35. ↑ Christoph Künast; Michael Riffel; Robert de Graeff; Gavin Whitmore (August 2013). Pollinators and agriculture - Agricultural productivity and pollinator protection (Report). European Landowners' Organization and the European Crop Protection Association. p. 20. https://www.boerenlandvogels.nl/sites/default/files/ECPA_Pollinators%20brochure_BaT2.pdf. Retrieved 9 September 2020. 
  36. ↑ Ollerton, J.; Winfree, R.; Tarrant, S. (2011). "How many flowering plants are pollinated by animals?". Oikos 120 (3): 321–326. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x. 
  37. ↑ Roubik, D.W., 1995. "Pollination of Cultivated Plants in the Tropics". In: Agricultural Services Bulletin 118. Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Pages 142–148
  38. ↑ "Pollinators". Washington College. https://www.washcoll.edu/centers/ces/crfrs/natural-lands-project/pollinators/. 
  39. ↑ Berenbaum, May R. (2016). "How it takes honey to make a honey bee — and pollen and nectar to make a pollinator" (in en). 2016 International Congress of Entomology. Entomological Society of America. doi:10.1603/ICE.2016.94268. https://esa.confex.com/esa/ice2016/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/94268. 
  40. ↑ Lundgren, Rebekka Laura; Lázaro, Amparo; Totland, Orjan (October 2013). "Experimental pollinator decline affects plant reproduction and is mediated by plant mating system". Journal of Pollination Ecology 11 (7): 46–56. doi:10.26786/1920-7603(2013)5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261623079. Retrieved 10 September 2020. 
  41. ↑ Aizen, Marcelo A.; Garibaldi, Lucas A.; Cunningham, Saul A.; Klein, Alexandra M. (June 2009). "How much does agriculture depend on pollinators? Lessons from long-term trends in crop production". Annals of Botany 103 (9): 1579–1588. doi:10.1093/aob/mcp076. PMID 19339297. 
  42. ↑ "The Value of Honey Bees As Pollinators of U.S. Crops in 2000". Cornell University. 2000. http://www.masterbeekeeper.org/pdf/pollination.pdf. 
  43. ↑ Gallai, N.; Salles, J. M.; Settele, J.; Vaissière, B. E. (2009). "Economic valuation of the vulnerability of world agriculture confronted with pollinator decline". Ecological Economics 68 (3): 810–821. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.06.014. https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01293686/file/Gallai%20et%20al.%202009%20Ecological%20Economics%20Economic%20Valiuation%20of%20Poll.pdf. 
  44. ↑ Petherick, Anna (16 October 2008). "Agriculture unaffected by pollinator declines". Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2008.1175. Retrieved 9 September 2020. 
  45. ↑ Ellis, Alicia M.; Myers, Samuel S.; Ricketts, Taylor H. (2015-01-09). "Do Pollinators Contribute to Nutritional Health?" (in en). PLOS ONE 10 (1): e114805. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114805. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 25575027. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..10k4805E. 
  46. ↑ Chaplin-Kramer, Rebecca; Dombeck, Emily; Gerber, James; Knuth, Katherine A.; Mueller, Nathaniel D.; Mueller, Megan; Ziv, Guy; Klein, Alexandra-Maria (2014). "Global malnutrition overlaps with pollinator-dependent micronutrient production". Proceedings: Biological Sciences 281 (1794): 20141799. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.1799. PMID 25232140. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Eilers, Elisabeth J.; Kremen, Claire; Greenleaf, Sarah Smith; Garber, Andrea K.; Klein, Alexandra-Maria (2011-06-22). "Contribution of Pollinator-Mediated Crops to Nutrients in the Human Food Supply" (in en). PLOS ONE 6 (6): e21363. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021363. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 21731717. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...621363E. 
  48. ↑ Smith, Matthew R.; Singh, Gitanjali M.; Mozaffarian, Dariush; Myers, Samuel S. (2015-11-14). "Effects of decreases of animal pollinators on human nutrition and global health: a modelling analysis" (in en). The Lancet 386 (10007): 1964–1972. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61085-6. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 26188748. 
  49. ↑ McDonald-Gibson, Charlotte (29 April 2013). "'Victory for bees' as European Union bans neonicotinoid pesticides blamed for destroying bee population". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/victory-for-bees-as-european-union-bans-neonicotinoid-pesticides-blamed-for-destroying-bee-population-8595408.html. "Environmentalists hailed a 'victory for bees' today after the European Union voted for a ban on the nerve-agent pesticides blamed for the dramatic decline global bee populations. ... Dr Lynn Dicks, a research associate at the University of Cambridge, said that despite the contradictory studies, the EU was right to err on the side of caution. 'This is a victory for the precautionary principle, which is supposed to underlie environmental regulation,' she said." 
  50. ↑ Vandever, Mark. "Native Pollinators in Agricultural Ecosystems". https://www.usgs.gov/centers/fort/science/assessment-native-pollinator-habitat-and-diversity-agricultural-ecosystems?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. 
  51. ↑ "The Economic Challenge Posed by Declining Pollinator Populations" (Factsheet). whitehouse.gov. June 20, 2014. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/20/fact-sheet-economic-challenge-posed-declining-pollinator-populations. 
  52. ↑ Byrne, A.; Fitzpatrick, U. (2009). "Bee conservation policy at the global, regional and national levels". Apidologie 40 (3): 194–210. doi:10.1051/apido/2009017. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00892008/file/hal-00892008.pdf. 
  53. ↑ Legislatures, National Conference of State. "Pollinator Health" (in en-US). http://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/pollinator-health.aspx. 
  54. ↑ Dicks, Lynn V.; Breeze, Tom D.; Ngo, Hien T.; Senapathi, Deepa; An, Jiandong; Aizen, Marcelo A.; Basu, Parthiba; Buchori, Damayanti et al. (2021-08-16). "A global-scale expert assessment of drivers and risks associated with pollinator decline" (in en). Nature Ecology & Evolution 5 (10): 1453–1461. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01534-9. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 34400826. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-021-01534-9. 

Further reading

External links



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