Earth:Cow Branch Formation

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Short description: Geologic formation in the eastern U.S.
Cow Branch Formation
Stratigraphic range: mid-Norian?
↓
Cow Branch Formation (Upper Triassic; Pit B of Solite Quarry, near Eden, North Carolina, USA) 8 (51387281623).jpg
Outcrop of the formation along the northwest wall of Solite Quarry Pit B in North Carolina
TypeGeological formation
Unit ofDan River Group
Thickness1900 m
Location
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 36°24′N 80°00′W / 36.4°N 80.0°W / 36.4; -80.0
Paleocoordinates [ ⚑ ] 5°30′N 20°24′W / 5.5°N 20.4°W / 5.5; -20.4
RegionVirginia
Country United States
Type section
Named byThayer, 1970
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The Cow Branch Formation is a Late Triassic geologic formation in Virginia and North Carolina in the eastern United States . The formation consists of cyclical beds of black and grey lacustrine (lake) mudstone and shale.[1][2][3][4][5] It is a konservat-lagerstätte renowned for its exceptionally preserved insect fossils, along with small reptiles,[6] fish, and plants.[7][8][9][10] Dinosaur tracks have also been reported from the formation.[11]

Geology

Regional setting

The Cow Branch Formation is exposed in the Dan River-Danville Basin,[2][4] a narrow half-graben which extends across the border of Virginia and North Carolina in the eastern United States. The basin has also been termed the Danville Basin[12] (emphasizing the northern portion in Virginia) or the Dan River Basin[13][1][9][5] (emphasizing the southern portion, in North Carolina). It is one of many Triassic-Jurassic rift basins stretching from northeast to southwest in eastern North America, collectively described as the Newark Supergroup.[5]

The Cow Branch Formation was initially distinguished by Meyertons (1963), working in the Virginian portion of the basin. He considered it to be a member of the Leaksville Formation, a name which encompassed almost all Triassic sediment in the basin.[12] Thayer (1970), working in North Carolina, split up the Leaksville Formation and raised its members to formation status within the Dan River Group.[13] The Cow Branch Formation was divided into upper and lower members, though the lower member has subsequently been renamed to the Walnut Cove Formation.[5] Recent revisions place the Cow Branch Formation above the Dry Fork Formation and below the Stoneville Formation.[5]

The type section of the Cow Branch Formation was a former roadcut along Virginia Route 856, in Pittsylvania County southeast of Cascade.[13] A new lectostratotype was proposed in 2015: a large stone quarry extending across the state line by the Dan River near Eden, North Carolina.[5] This quarry, commonly known as the Solite Quarry, is technically a cluster of three quarry pits, one in Pittsylvania County, Virginia and two in Rockingham County, North Carolina. The site is home to the most extensive and fossiliferous exposures of the formation. Exceptionally-preserved fossils were first reported from the site in 1978, and collection has continued to the present.[1][9][4]

Sedimentology and paleoenvironment

A relatively coarse-grained slab at the Solite Quarry, preserving numerous dinosaur footprints (Grallator)

The sediments of the Cow Branch Formation are dark grey to black in color and generally fine-grained. Blocky mudstones and thinly-laminated shale are the most common lithologies. The formation is thickest and most fine-grained at the state line, approximately in the middle of its exposed area. Here, the formation is about 1,900 metres (6,200 ft) thick. Coarser sediments such as dark grey sandstone are more prevalent to the southeast and northwest, though periodic black mudstone beds are still frequently encountered. Color is the most useful metric for distinguishing the Cow Branch Formation in the field, as red and purple sediments are practically absent, unlike the Dry Fork and Stoneville formations.[5]

The Cow Branch Formation represents a lacustrine (lake) system in a warm tropical climate, only around 2°[14] to 4°[15] north of the equator. Deposition preceded at an estimated rate of around 46.3 cm/kyr.[15] Bioturbation is almost completely absent, indicating that the lake bed was uninhabited by burrowing animals. Insect-bearing fossil layers were likely completely freshwater while the fish-bearing layers may have been somewhat saltier. As in modern rift lakes, high water levels could have initiated brine seeps along the edge of the basin, adding sodium into the lake system. Quartz is conspicuously absent even from the siliciclastic layers, having been replaced with albite (high-sodium feldspar) through diagenetic processes.[3][4]

The high frequency of dolomite in the formation indicates that the lake was strongly alkaline, with its water saturated with magnesium supplied from older carbonate rocks in the area.[3][4] The lack of bioturbation, mudcracks, or root casts has traditionally been taken as evidence that the waters were deep enough to be continually stratified, with the hypolimnion (deepest portion) completely lacking oxygen.[1][2][8] An alternative hypothesis suggests that the lake was rather shallow, albeit still deep enough to have been permanent during the formation's deposition. This is supported by the abundance of dolomite, a mineral which forms most easily in salty shallow-water environments. In addition, the insect-bearing layers nearly lack organic carbon, suggesting that the lakebed was fully oxygenated even at its deepest extent.[3][4] The lake sediments have a high concentration of fluorine, a fact which may help to resolve the near-absence of bioturbators. As with excessive salinity, excessive fluorine can be toxic for fully aquatic organisms (including bioturbators and freshwater plants), but air-breathing insects can persevere and thrive close to the shoreline.[3][4]

Sediment cycles

An outcrop showing cyclical beds of fine-grained sediments at the Solite Quarry

Sediment cycles are readily apparent in the formation, shifting between the extremes of black microlaminated shale and massive coarse mudstone.[4] These are identified as Van Houten cycles, a name applied to fluctuating lake depositional conditions throughout the Triassic rift basins of the Newark Supergroup.[16] Each cycle probably corresponds to variations in precipitation tied to the earth's precession, a type of Milankovitch cycle which oscillates on a scale exceeding 21,000 years.[4] 17[4] or 18[1] cycles are generally acknowledged in a continuous section at the Solite Quarry. Some sources estimate that up to 30 cycles were preserved at the site, factoring in all three quarry pits combined.[8] The semi-precessional (10,000 to 15,000 year) astronomical cycle is another strong influence on sedimentation.[15]

In the Cow Branch Formation, each cycle begins with a brief package of fine silty claystone.[1][2] The uppermost portion of this package is rich in mica and carbon, with very little calcareous material. It is followed shortly by a very thin but laterally extensive dolomite bed.[4][3] These layers correspond to a period of rising lake levels. Fossils of all types are most common in the succeeding black shale and associated lithologies, the point where the lakes are at their deepest extent.[1][6][2] Most of the fossiliferous unit is calcareous black shale, though thin beds of extremely fine siliclastic clay can also be found. Insect fossils are predominant in microlaminated carbon-poor shale while fish, plants, and coprolites tend to occur among interbedded carbon-rich dolomite, siltstone, and fine sandstone.[3][4] The fossiliferous layers occupy only a small portion of each cycle, less than a thousand years' worth of sedimentation.[3] They give way to a thicker and coarser series of shallow-water siltstone, first with a high proportion of pyrite and slickensides, then salt casts, and finally massive siltstone beds scoured by wave action.[1][6][2]

Age

The Cow Branch Formation is certainly from the Late Triassic, though there is disagreement as to the exact age of its sediments. The fossil content and depositional environment are very similar to the Lockatong Formation in the Newark Basin of the Mid Atlantic region, and to a lesser extent the Chinle Formation in the southwest United States.[1] During the late 20th century, these formations were often assigned to the later part of the Carnian stage.[1][6][7] This was justified by their fossil content, particularly palynomorphs, which were comparable to the Middle Keuper of Germany.[1][6] The conchostracan Anyuanestheria has been reported from both the German Middle Schilfsandstein and the "lower Cow Branch Formation"[17] (now known as the Walnut Cove Formation).[5]

A Carnian age has been brought into doubt by a more diverse suite of dating methods in the Newark Supergroup.[5] Starting in the 1990s, the depositional history of the Newark Basin was recalibrated through a combination of core drilling, radiometric dating, cyclostratigraphy, and magnetostratigraphy. The end result was the Newark astrochronostratigraphic polarity time scale (APTS), a unifying system which provides precise ages for sediment layers within the basin.[18][16] The resulting ages were younger than previously expected. For example, the Lockatong Formation was assigned a mid-Norian age (222.56 – 218.11 Ma), rather than late Carnian.[16]

The same techniques used to create the Newark APTS can be applied to other basins with continuous cyclical deposition, such as the Dan River-Danville Basin. A magnetostratigraphic sequence has been reconstructed for the Dan River-Danville Basin since 1997, assisting correlation to the Newark Basin.[14] There are at least twelve pairs of normal-reverse magnetic polarity chrons recorded in the Dan River-Danville Basin. Four of these magnetostratigraphic intervals were present through the deposition of the Cow Branch Formation: a long reverse chron (D3r), followed by a short normal chron (D4n), a moderate-length reverse chron (D4r) and finally a long normal chron (D5n). These four chrons have been equated with chrons E11r, E12n, E12r, and E13n (respectively) in the Newark Basin.[14][5] Chrons E11r to E13n apply to a period of time extending from the early-mid Lockatong Formation (Nursery Member) up to the early Passaic Formation (Warford Member), 221.47 Ma to 216.97 Ma.[16] If the Cow Branch Formation is equivalent to this interval, then it would be firmly positioned within the Norian stage.[5] The fossil beds of the Solite Quarry are in the lower-middle part of the formation, with an estimated age close to 220 Ma.[15][5]

Paleobiota

Reptiles

Reptiles of the Cow Branch Formation
Genus / Taxon Species Material Notes Images
Apatopus A. sp. Footprints[1][2][19] Presumed phytosaur footprints
Atreipus A. milfordensis[20] Footprints[20][7][2][19] Footprints of early quadrupedal dinosaurs or dinosauromorphs, possibly ornithischians.[20]
Grallator G. sp. Footprints[1][19] Presumed dinosaur footprints
Grallator (dinosaur footprint) (Cow Branch Formation, Upper Triassic; Solite Quarry, Pittsylvania County-Rockingham County border, Virginia-North Carolina border, USA) 18 (51384046350).jpg
Gwyneddichnium G. sp. Footprints[19] Footprints, presumably created by small tanystropheids such as Tanytrachelos.[21]
Mecistotrachelos[22] M. apeoros[22] Multiple partial skeletons, two of which have been described[22] A probable archosauromorph with elongated ribs, presumably hosting gliding membranes.[22]
Mecistotrachelos holotype slab.jpg
Rutiodon R. carolinensis[7] A partial skeleton[5] and teeth.[1] A phytosaurid (or mystriosuchine) phytosaur
Rutiodon BW.jpg
Tanytrachelos[6] T. ahynis[6] Numerous specimens, including complete skeletons.[6] A small tanystropheid archosauromorph closely related to Tanystropheus. Some specimens preserve traces of muscles and ligaments near the tail.[6][8]
Tanytrachelos VMNH 120016.jpg

Fish

Undescribed pholidophorids and holosteans were present.[7][2] A relatively large freshwater shark tooth is also known from the formation.[8]

Fish of the Cow Branch Formation
Genus / Taxon Species Material Notes Images
Diplurus D. cf. newarki[2][8] At least one large specimen[1] A coelacanth, sometimes placed in the genus Osteopleurus.[7][2]
Cionichthys C. sp.[2][8] A redfieldiiform[2]
cf. Pariostegus cf. Pariostegus sp.[7][2][8] A coelacanth
Semionotus S. brauni.[7][2][8] At least three specimens[1] A semionotiform ginglymodian
Synorichthys S. sp.[7][2][8] "Several partial skeletons"[1] A redfieldiiform[2]
Turseodus T. spp.[7][2][8] At least two specimens[1] A "palaeoniscid"[7][2]-grade actinopterygian

Arthropods

"Conchostracans" (clam shrimp) from the formation have typically been assigned to the genera Cyzicus and Palaeolimnadia,[1][2] though they may instead be species of Eustheria.[5] Apart from arthropods, other invertebrate fossils from the Cow Branch Formation include (uncommon) Scoyenia burrows and indeterminate unionid bivalves.[7]

The most abundant insects are beetles and aquatic hemipterans, but most of these fossils have yet to be assigned to the species level. In terms of named diversity, dipterans (flies) make up the bulk of the assemblage, despite representing only 1.5% of insect fossils from the Solite Quarry.[4] Within the shale layers bearing insect fossils, aquatic insects are most abundant in the early part of a layer, while terrestrial insects maintain a low but steady presence through the entire layer.[3]

Arthropods of the Cow Branch Formation
Genus / Taxon Species Material Notes Images
Alinka[23] A. cara[23] Two specimens.[23] A procramptonomyiid fly.[24]
Archescytinidae A. indet.[8] Indeterminate archescytinid thrips.
Architipula A. youngi[23] "Excellent specimens"[8] A limoniid crane fly in the subfamily Architipulinae.[24]
Argyrarachne[25] A. solitus[25] A single juvenile specimen missing the abdomen.[25] An araneomorph spider, one of the oldest known potential species of araneomorph.[25]
Blattodea B. indet.[2][8] Indeterminate cockroaches.
Brachyrhyphys[24] B. distortus[24] One distorted female specimen.[24] A protorhyphid fly.[24]
Cascadelcana[26] C. virginiana[26] A wing.[26] The oldest known member of Elcanidae, a family of cricket-like orthopterans.[26]
?Crosaphis C. virginiensis[24] One specimen.[24] A crosaphidid fly tentatively assigned to Crosaphis.[24]
cf. Clytiopsis cf. C. sp.[7][2] A crayfish-like decapod.[7][2]
Darwinula D. spp.[7][2] Freshwater ostracods (seed shrimp).
Diptera D. indet.[7][2] Indeterminate flies, including eoptychopterids and culicomorphs.[24]
Holcoptera H. solitensis[27] Two elytra with preserved color patterns.[27] A water beetle in the family Coptoclavidae.[27]
Leehermania[28] L. prorova[28] Numerous specimens.[28] A beetle, originally identified as the oldest known staphylinid (rove beetle),[28] and later classified as a myxophagan.[29]
Metarchilimonia[24] M. krzeminksorum[24] Two specimens, one of which is a female.[24] A limoniid crane fly in the subfamily Architipulinae.[24]
M. solita[24] One specimen.[24] A limoniid crane fly in the subfamily Architipulinae.[24]
Mormolucoides M. articulatus Numerous specimens preserved together in "death beds".[30] Insect larvae with thick mandibles, likely the aquatic grubs of beetles such as Holcoptera.[30]
Naucoridae N. indet.[8] Indeterminate naucorids (creeping water bugs).
Orthoptera O. indet.[8] Indeterminate orthopterans (crickets, grasshoppers, and allies)
Phoroschizidae P. indet. Indeterminate stem-group beetles.
?Phyllocarida ?P. indet.[1][7] Possible indeterminate phyllocarid crustaceans.[1][7] May represent hemipterans or fly pupae instead.[3]
Phyloblatta P. grimaldii[31] One of the youngest known phyloblattid cockroaches.[31]
Prosechamyia[24] P. dimedia[24] One specimen.[24] A stem-group brachyceran fly.[24]
P. trimedia[24] One specimen.[24] A stem-group brachyceran fly.[24]
Pseudopolycentropodes[32] P. virginicus[32] Three specimens.[32] A scorpionfly in the family Pseudopolycentropodidae.[32] Initially misidentified as a trichopteran (caddisfly).[8]
Thysanoptera T. indet.[8] Indeterminate thrips.
Tipulomorpha T. indet. Indeterminate tipulomorphs (crane flies and allies).
Triassonepa[33] T. solensis[33] 87 specimens.[33] The oldest known belostomatid (predaceous water bug).[33]
Triassopsychoda[24] T. olseni[24] One female specimen.[24] A probable psychodid (drain fly).[24]
Triassothrips[34] T. virginicus[34] Seven specimens.[34] One of the oldest known thrips.[34]
Veriplecia V. rugosa[24] One male specimen.[24] A paraxymyiid fly.[24]
Virginiptera[24] V. certa[24] Two specimens.[24] A paraxymyiid fly.[24] One specimen was initially misidentified as Crosaphis.[8]
V. lativentra[24] One male specimen.[24] A paraxymyiid fly.[24]
V. similis[24] Two male specimens.[24] A paraxymyiid fly.[24]
Yalea[35] Y. argentata[23] One male specimen.[23] A procramptonomyiid fly.[24]
Y. rectimedia[24] One female specimen.[24] A procramptonomyiid fly.[24]

Plants

Plant fossils are abundant. The most common examples are conifer foliage, followed by bennettitales and ginkgophytes. Ferns and sphenophytes are also present, though less common. Two endemic forms, the seed taxon Edenia villisperma and the leaf taxon Pannaulika triassica, have been compared to angiosperms (flowering plants) in their structure, though they likely are unrelated to true angiosperms.[4]

Plants of the Cow Branch Formation
Genus / Taxon Species Notes Images
Brachyphyllum B. sp.[8] Abundant conifer leaf-bearing shoots.[4]
cf. Compsostrobus cf. C. neotericus[1][2][8] A conifer seed cone.
Cyathoforma C. sp.[8] Fronds of a large cyatheacean tree fern.[36][37]
cf. Dechellyia cf. D. sp.[1][2] Leaves of an enigmatic gymnosperm, often considered a gnetalean.
Dictyophyllum D. sp.[1][2][8] Fronds of a dipterid fern.[4]
Edenia[38] E. villisperma[38] A hairy parachuting seed superficially similar to the achenes of modern Platanus (plane trees and American sycamores).[38]
cf. Elatocladus cf. E. sp.[8] Conifer leaf-bearing shoots.
Eretmophyllum Common ginkgophyte leaves.[4]
Fraxinopteris F. sp.[8] Winged gymnosperm seeds.[4]
Glandulozamites G. sp.[1][2] Cycad leaves.
cf. Grammaephloios cf. G. sp.[1][2] A lycopod.[1]
Lepacyclotes L. sp.[8] A lycopod.
"Lepidodendron type"[8] A lycopod, briefly listed in a single paper on the formation.[8]
Lonchopteris L. virginiensis[1][2][8] Fern fronds. The species has sometimes been considered referable to another fern genus, Cynepteris.[8]
Metreophyllum M. sp.[8] Leaves of a ginkgophyte similar to Eretmophyllum.[8]
Neocalamites N. cf. knowltonii[1][2][8] Fragmentary leaf and stem impressions of a sphenophyte (horsetail).
Pagiophyllum P. diffusum[8] Conifer leaf-bearing shoots.
P. simpsoniae[8] Conifer leaf-bearing shoots.
P. sp.[1][2][8] Abundant conifer leaf-bearing shoots.[4]
Pannaulika[37] P. triassica[37] Leaves of an enigmatic plant originally described as similar to dicot angiosperms,[37][8] though more likely a species of fern.[4]
Pelourdea P. sp.[8] Leaves of an enigmatic gymnosperm, possibly a type of conifer.
Podozamites P. sp.[1][2][8] Conifer leaves.
Pseudohirmerella P. delawarensis Seed cones of an early cheirolepid conifer.[39][40] Fossils of this species from the Solite Quarry were previously known by the names Glyptolepis platysperma[1][2] or Hirmeriella sp.[8]
Pterophyllum P. cf. Ctenophyllum giganteum.[1][2] Common bennettitale leaves.[4]
cf. Sagenopteris cf. S. sp.[1][2] Leaves of a caytonialean "seed fern".
Sphenobaiera S. sp.[8] Uncommon ginkgophyte leaves.[4]
Sphenozamites S. sp.[8] Bennettitale leaves
Todites T. gaillardotii? Fronds of an osmundaceous fern. Fossils of this species were initially described as Neuropteris gaillardotii and N. linnaeaefolia.[41] The latter species has been reported from the Solite Quarry under the name Acrostichites linnaefolius.[1][2][8] The two species have subsequently been synonymized and referred to the genus Todites.[42][43]
Wingatea W. sp.[8] Fronds of a gleicheniaceous fern.[8]
cf. Zamiostrobus cf. Z. lissocardus[1][2][8] A cycad seed cone.
Zamites Z. powellii[1][2][8] Common bennettitale leaves.[4]

Gallery

  • Southwest wall of Solite Quarry Pit B

  • Conchostracan fossils in black shales (Solite Quarry Pit B)

  • Fossil fish spine in black shale from an outcrop near Madison, North Carolina

  • Vertebrate tooth in black shale from an outcrop near Madison, North Carolina

See also

  • List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations
    • List of stratigraphic units with ornithischian tracks
      • Indeterminate ornithischian tracks

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 1.34 1.35 1.36 Olsen, Paul E.; Remington, Charles L.; Cornet, Bruce; Thomson, Keith S. (1978-08-25). "Cyclic Change in Late Triassic Lacustrine Communities" (in en). Science 201 (4357): 729–733. doi:10.1126/science.201.4357.729. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17750230. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.201.4357.729. 
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 Olsen, Paul E.; Schlische, Roy W.; Gore, Pamela J.W. (1989). Tectonic, Depositional, and paleoecological history of Early Mesozoic rift basins, eastern North America: 28th International Geological Congress Field Trip Guidebook T351. Washington D.C.: American Geophysical Union. pp. 1–174. doi:10.1029/FT351. ISBN 0875906583. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/olsen_et_al_89_all_sm.pdf. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Liutkus, C. M.; Beard, J. S.; Fraser, N. C.; Ragland, P. C. (2010). "Use of fine-scale stratigraphy and chemostratigraphy to evaluate conditions of deposition and preservation of a Triassic Lagerstätte, south-central Virginia" (in en). Journal of Paleolimnology 44 (2): 645–666. doi:10.1007/s10933-010-9445-1. ISSN 0921-2728. Bibcode: 2010JPall..44..645L. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10933-010-9445-1. 
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 Liutkus-Pierce, Cynthia M.; Fraser, Nicholas C.; Heckert, Andrew B. (2014), Bailey, Christopher M.; Coiner, Lorrie V., eds., "Stratigraphy, sedimentology, and paleontology of the Upper Triassic Solite Quarry, North Carolina and Virginia", Elevating Geoscience in the Southeastern United States: New Ideas about Old Terranes—Field Guides for the GSA Southeastern Section Meeting, Blacksburg, Virginia, 2014 (Geological Society of America): pp. 255–269, doi:10.1130/2014.0035(09), ISBN 978-0-8137-0035-9, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282850068, retrieved 2023-12-18 
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 Olsen, Paul E.; Reid, Jeffrey C.; Taylor, Kenneth B.; Whiteside, Jessica H.; Kent, Dennis V. (2015). "Revised stratigraphy of Late Triassic age strata of the Dan River Basin (Virginia and North Carolina, USA) based on drill core and outcrop data". Southeastern Geology 51 (1): 1–31. doi:10.7916/D82F7MSJ. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273454856. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 Olsen, Paul E. (1979). "A new aquatic Eosuchian from the Newark Supergroup (Late Triassic–Early Jurassic) of North Carolina and Virginia". Postilla 176: 1–14. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/olsen_tany_79.pdf. 
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 Olsen, Paul E. (1988). "8. Paleoecology and Paleoenvironments of the Continental Early Mesozoic Newark Supergroup of Eastern North America". in Manspeizer, Warren. Triassic-Jurassic Rifting and the Opening of the Atlantic Ocean. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 185–230. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-42903-2.50013-0. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/olsen_88.pdf. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17 8.18 8.19 8.20 8.21 8.22 8.23 8.24 8.25 8.26 8.27 8.28 8.29 8.30 8.31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8.35 8.36 8.37 8.38 8.39 8.40 8.41 8.42 8.43 8.44 8.45 8.46 Fraser, Nicholas C.; Grimaldi, David A.; Olsen, Paul E.; Axsmith, Brian (1996). "A Triassic Lagerstätte from eastern North America". Nature 380 (6575): 615–619. doi:10.1038/380615a0. ISSN 0028-0836. Bibcode: 1996Natur.380..615F. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235735108. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Fraser, Nicholas C.; Grimaldi, David A. (1999). "A significant Late Triassic Lagerstaette from Virginia, U.S.A". Revista del Museo Civico di Scienze Naturali: Enrico Caffi 20: 79–84. https://www.museoscienzebergamo.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/vol-20s-19.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Fraser, Nicholas C.; Grimaldi, David A. (2003). "Late Triassic continental faunal change: New perspectives on Triassic insect diversity as revealed by a locality in the Danville basin, Virginia, Newark Supergroup". in LeTourneau, Peter M.. The Great Rift Valleys of Pangea in Eastern North America, Volume 2: Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, and Paleontology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 192–205. 
  11. ↑ Weishampel et al., 2004, pp.517-607
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Meyertons, C.T. (1963). "Triassic formations of the Danville basin". Virginia Division of Mineral Resources Report of Investigations 6: 1–65. https://energy.virginia.gov/commerce/ProductDetails.aspx?productID=2263. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Paul A., Thayer (1970). "Stratigraphy and geology of Dan River Triassic basin, North Carolina". Southeastern Geology 12 (1): 1–31. http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/asu/f/SoutheasternGeology_Vol012_No01_1970_M.pdf. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E. (1997). "Paleomagnetism of Upper Triassic continental sedimentary rocks from the Dan River–Danville rift basin (eastern North America)". Geological Society of America Bulletin 109 (3): 366–377. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0366:POUTCS>2.3.CO;2. Bibcode: 1997GSAB..109..366K. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286631227. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Whiteside, Jessica H.; Grogan, Danielle S.; Olsen, Paul E.; Kent, Dennis V. (2011-05-31). "Climatically driven biogeographic provinces of Late Triassic tropical Pangea" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (22): 8972–8977. doi:10.1073/pnas.1102473108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 21571639. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..108.8972W. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E.; Muttoni, Giovanni (2017-03-01). "Astrochronostratigraphic polarity time scale (APTS) for the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic from continental sediments and correlation with standard marine stages". Earth-Science Reviews 166: 153–180. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.12.014. ISSN 0012-8252. Bibcode: 2017ESRv..166..153K. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/emct/Kent+2017(1).pdf. 
  17. ↑ Kozur, Heinz W.; Weems, Robert E. (2007). "Upper Triassic conchostracan biostratigraphy of the continental rift basins of eastern North America: Its importance for correlating Newark Supergroup events with the Germanic basin and the international geologic time scale". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 41: 137–188. https://books.google.com/books?id=EGDmCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA137. 
  18. ↑ Muttoni, Giovanni; Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E.; Di Stefano, Piero; Lowrie, William; Bernasconi, Stefano M.; Hernández, Fátima Martín (2004). "Tethyan magnetostratigraphy from Pizzo Mondello (Sicily) and correlation to the Late Triassic Newark astrochronological polarity time scale". Geological Society of America Bulletin 116 (9): 1043. doi:10.1130/b25326.1. ISSN 0016-7606. Bibcode: 2004GSAB..116.1043M. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253069199. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Fraser, Nicholas C.; Olsen, Paul E. (15 October 1996). "A new dinosauriform ischnogenus from the Late Triassic of Virginia". Jeffersoniana 7: 1–17. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/fraser_olsen_96_sm.pdf. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Olsen, Paul E.; Baird, Donald (1986). "6. The ichnogenus Atreipus and its significance for Triassic biostratigraphy". in Padian, Kevin. The beginning of the Age of Dinosaurs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–87. https://doc.rero.ch/record/14178/files/PAL_E1314.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Lucas, Spencer G.; Szajna, Michael J.; Lockley, Martin G.; Fillmore, David L.; Simpson, Edward L.; Klein, Hendrik; Boyland, Jack; Hartline, Brian W. (2014). "The middle-late Triassic tetrapod footprint ichnogenus Gwyneddichnium". New Mexico Museum of Natural History & Science Bulletin 62: 135–156. https://books.google.com/books?id=K9ioDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA135. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Fraser, N.C.; Olsen, P.E.; Dooley, A.C. Jr.; Ryan, T.R. (2007). "A new gliding tetrapod (Diapsida: ?Archosauromorpha) from the Upper Triassic (Carnian) of Virginia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 27 (2): 261–265. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[261:ANGTDA2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0272-4634. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232663568. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 Krzemiński, Wieslaw (1992). "Triassic and Lower Jurassic stage of Diptera evolution". Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologichen Gesellschaft 65: 39–59. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268519477. 
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17 24.18 24.19 24.20 24.21 24.22 24.23 24.24 24.25 24.26 24.27 24.28 24.29 24.30 24.31 24.32 24.33 24.34 24.35 24.36 24.37 24.38 24.39 24.40 24.41 24.42 24.43 24.44 Blagoderov, Vladimir; Grimaldi, David A.; Fraser, Nicholas C. (2007). "How Time Flies for Flies: Diverse Diptera from the Triassic of Virginia and Early Radiation of the Order". American Museum Novitates (3572): 1–39. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2007)509[1:HTFFFD2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0003-0082. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228097288. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Selden, Paul A.; Anderson, John M.; Anderson, Heidi M.; Fraser, Nicholas C. (1999). "Fossil araneomorph spiders from the Triassic of South Africa and Virginia". Journal of Arachnology 27: 401–414. http://www.paulselden.net/uploads/7/5/3/2/7532217/joaaraneomorphs.pdf. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Fang, Yan; Muscente, A.D.; Heads, Sam W.; Wang, Bo; Xiao, Shuhai (2018-05-25). "The earliest Elcanidae (Insecta, Orthoptera) from the Upper Triassic of North America". Journal of Paleontology 92 (6): 1028–1034. doi:10.1017/jpa.2018.20. ISSN 0022-3360. Bibcode: 2018JPal...92.1028F. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jpa.2018.20. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Thomson, Ulysses; Ross, Andrew J.; Davidson, Philip (2017). "Mesozoic Holcoptera (Coleoptera: Coptoclavidae) from England and the United States". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 128 (4): 659–674. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.05.009. ISSN 0016-7878. Bibcode: 2017PrGA..128..659T. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Chatzimanolis, Stylianos; Grimaldi, David A.; Engel, Michael S.; Fraser, Nicholas C. (2012). "Leehermania prorova, the Earliest Staphyliniform Beetle, from the Late Triassic of Virginia (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)". American Museum Novitates (3761): 1–28. doi:10.1206/3761.2. ISSN 0003-0082. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256297322. 
  29. ↑ Fikáček, Martin; Beutel, Rolf G.; Cai, Chenyang; Lawrence, John F.; Newton, Alfred F.; Solodovnikov, Alexey; Ślipiński, Adam; Thayer, Margaret K. et al. (January 2020). "Reliable placement of beetle fossils via phylogenetic analyses – Triassic Leehermania as a case study (Staphylinidae or Myxophaga?)" (in en). Systematic Entomology 45 (1): 175–187. doi:10.1111/syen.12386. ISSN 0307-6970. Bibcode: 2020SysEn..45..175F. https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/syen.12386. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Huber, Phillip; McDonald, Nicholas G.; Olsen, Paul E. (2003). "Early Jurassic insects from the Newark Supergroup, northeastern United States". in LeTourneau, Peter M.. The Great Rift Valleys of Pangea in Eastern North America, Volume 2: Sedimentology, Stratigraphy, and Paleontology. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 206–223. https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/huber_et_al_03.pdf. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Vršanský, Peter (2003). "Phyloblatta grimaldii sp. nov. – a new Triassic cockroach (Insecta: Blattaria) from Virginia". Entomological Problems 33 (1–2): 51–53. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Grimaldi, David; Rasnitsyn, Alexandr; Junfeng, Zhang; Fraser, Nicholas (2005). "Revision of the bizarre Mesozoic scorpionflies in the Pseudopolycentropodidae (Mecopteroidea)". Insect Systematics & Evolution 36 (4): 443–458. doi:10.1163/187631205794761021. ISSN 1399-560X. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187631205794761021. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Criscione, Julia; Grimaldi, David (2017). "The oldest predaceous water bugs (Insecta, Heteroptera, Belostomatidae), with implications for paleolimnology of the Triassic Cow Branch Formation" (in en). Journal of Paleontology 91 (6): 1166–1177. doi:10.1017/jpa.2017.48. ISSN 0022-3360. Bibcode: 2017JPal...91.1166C. http://eps.rutgers.edu/images/oldest_predaceous_water_bugs_insecta_heteroptera_belostomatidae_with_implications_for_paleolimnology_of_the_triassic_cow_branch_formation.pdf. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Grimaldi, David; Shmakov, Alexey; Fraser, Nicholas (2004). "Mesozoic thrips and early evolution of the order Thysanoptera (Insecta)" (in en). Journal of Paleontology 78 (5): 941–952. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2004)078<0941:MTAEEO>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-3360. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235743341. 
  35. ↑ Krzemiński, Wiesław (2004-12-31). "Yalea , a replacement generic name for Yala KRZEMIŃSKI, 1992 (Diptera: Procramptonomyiidae)" (in en). Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia 47 (3): 229. doi:10.3409/173491504783995771. ISSN 0065-1710. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/10.3409/173491504783995771. 
  36. ↑ Spamer, Earle E. (15 February 1995). "The Surviving Component of the Wilhelm Bock Collection of Fossils (Invertebrates, Vertebrates, and Plants) Held at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia". Notulae Naturae 473: 1–16. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Cornet, Bruce (1993). "Dicot-like leaf and flowers from the Late Triassic tropical Newark Supergroup rift zone, USA". Modern Geology 19: 81–99. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312972959. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Axsmith, Brian J.; Fraser, Nicholas C.; Corso, Taryn (2013). Lomax, Barry. ed. "A Triassic seed with an angiosperm-like wind dispersal mechanism" (in en). Palaeontology 56 (5): 1173–1177. doi:10.1111/pala.12049. ISSN 0031-0239. Bibcode: 2013Palgy..56.1173A. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pala.12049. 
  39. ↑ Axsmith, Brian J.; Taylor, Thomas N. (1997). "The Triassic conifer seed cone Glyptolepis" (in en). Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 96 (1–2): 71–79. doi:10.1016/S0034-6667(96)00050-4. Bibcode: 1997RPaPa..96...71A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0034666796000504. 
  40. ↑ Axsmith, Brian J; Andrews, Felicia M; Fraser, Nicholas C (2004). "The structure and phylogenetic significance of the conifer Pseudohirmerella delawarensis nov. comb. from the Upper Triassic of North America". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 129 (4): 251–263. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2004.02.005. ISSN 0034-6667. Bibcode: 2004RPaPa.129..251A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.revpalbo.2004.02.005. 
  41. ↑ F.H., Knowlton (1919). "A catalogue of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plants of North America". USGS Bulletin 696: 1–815. doi:10.3133/b696. https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0696/report.pdf. 
  42. ↑ Kustatscher, Evelyn; Van Konijnenburg-Van Cittert, Johanna H.A. (2011-08-01). "The ferns of the Middle Triassic flora from Thale (Germany)". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen 261 (2): 209–248. doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2011/0174. ISSN 0077-7749. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233414515. 
  43. ↑ Doweld, Alexander B. (2013). "(2246–2247) Proposals to conserve the names Todites against Acrostichites and Germaria, and Pecopteris williamsonis (Todites williamsonis) against P. curtata, P. hastata, and P. recentior (fossil Pteridophyta : Osmundopsida )" (in en). Taxon 62 (6): 1345–1346. doi:10.12705/626.33. ISSN 0040-0262. 

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  • Weishampel, David B.; Peter Dodson, and Halszka Osmólska (eds.). 2004. The Dinosauria, 2nd edition, 1–880. Berkeley: University of California Press. Accessed 2019-02-21. ISBN:0-520-24209-2



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