Earth:Eastern margin of the Sea of Japan

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Short description: Plate boundary between the Amurian and Okhotsk plates in East Asia
The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan defined by the Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion in 2003

The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan is a zone of concentrated geological strain which extends several hundred kilometers and north–south along the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan. The margin has undergone convergence tectonics since the end of the Pliocene.[1][2] It is believed to be an incipient subduction zone which defines the tectonic boundary between the Amurian and Okhotsk plates. This geological zone is seismically active and has been the source of destructive tsunamis. The feature runs off the west coast of Honshu, passes west of the Shakotan Peninsula on Hokkaido and through the Strait of Tartary, between Sakhalin and mainland Russia .

Plate tectonics

Topographical map of the Sea of Japan

The Sea of Japan represents a back-arc basin that formed via geological rifting of continental crust from the late Oligocene to middle Miocene (28–13 million years ago).[3] The Sea of Japan can be divided into sub-basins; the Japan Basin, Yamato Basin and Tsushima Basin. Seafloor spreading in the Sea of Japan was restricted to the Japan Basin and ceased by the middle Miocene.[4]

Following the end of seafloor spreading, its eastern margin experienced weak compression between 10 and 3.5 million years ago. Crustal shortening has been ongoing in the eastern margin and back-arc region of the Northeastern Japan Arc since 3.5 million years ago. This deformation is attributed to east–west compressive forces, forming fold and thrust belts along the eastern margin. The southern margin was subjected to north–south or northwest–southeast compression about 8–5 million years ago. Presently, the southern margin hosts mainly strike-slip faults.[4]

The margin is located at the boundary marking the Amurian and Okhotsk plates. Oceanic lithosphere from the Sea of Japan located on the Amurian Plate converges with the Japanese archipelago on the Okhotsk Plate. A Wadati–Benioff zone which is evidence for subduction, is absent in the zone, hence subduction is doubtful. However, it may be an incipient eastward-dipping subduction zone.[5] In 1983, it was proposed that subduction along the eastern margin commenced about 1–2 million years ago.[6]

The basis for defining this tectonic boundary is the occurrence of large magnitude 7 or greater earthquakes along a linear zone from offshore Niigata Prefecture to off the west coast of Hokkaido.[7] Following the 1983 Nihonkai-Chubu earthquake, the idea of a young plate boundary was proposed, but its mechanism is unknown—it has been proposed as a transform boundary or collision zone.[8]

Location

Plate boundary marked by the purple line

The margin passes north–south through the Shakotan Peninsula, Oshima Peninsula, and Tōhoku region. It junctions with the Niigata–Kobe Tectonic Zone and Itoigawa-Shizuoka Tectonic Line between Sado Island and the Noto Peninsula.[9] It strikes southwest in the western part of Fukushima Prefecture and extends to the border of Nagano and Toyama Prefecture. It exits north of Lake Biwa and continues to the eastern part of Shimane Prefecture. In the Sea of Japan, the cluster of extensional faults which were active during the formation of the sea remained. After the Pliocene, the stress field evolved from extensional to convergence. The compressive forces reactivated these faults and displayed thrust mechanisms.[10]

Seismicity and tsunamis

The eastern margin of the Sea of Japan was the source of historically destructive earthquakes and tsunamis. These events were considered intraplate earthquakes until 1983 when the plate boundary theory was proposed.[11] The associated geological faults related to the opening of the sea and compressive forces along the eastern margin influence seismic activity. Large earthquakes in 1833, 1940, 1964, 1983, and 1993 were the result of reverse faulting associated with the present deformation. The Sea of Japan is considered one of the world's most seismically active back-arc basins.[12]

Year Location Event Comments
1741 Oshima, off the coast of Hokkaido Volcanic eruption[13][14] About 2,000 people killed along the west coast of Japan from the resulting tsunami. Homes and fishing boats destroyed in Korea.[15] Tsunami magnitude calculated at Mt  8.4; largest tsunami in the region.[16]
1792 Shiribeshi Earthquake (M 7.1) At least five people killed in Oshoro by the tsunami and additional tsunami casualties at Bikuni.[17]
1793 (ja) Aomori Earthquake (Muk  6.9) Generated a tsunami along the Tsugaru Peninsula.[18] Twelve people killed and 164 homes destroyed. Considerable damage in Ajigasawa.[19][20]
1802 (ja) Sado Island Earthquake (Muk  6.6) At least 19 people killed, 732 homes destroyed and 1,423 damaged.[21] Caused 2 m (6 ft 7 in) of uplift on the Ogi Peninsula, exposing pillow lava from the Miocene.[22]
1804 (ja) Kisa, Akita Earthquake (Mw  7.1[23]) At least 450 killed and 10,810 houses destroyed.[21] A 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tsunami flooded 300 homes in Kisagata and Sakata.[24]
1828 (ja) Sanjō Niigata Earthquake (Muk  6.9[25]) At least 1,443 killed and 11,750 houses ruined.[26] No tsunami.[24]
1833 Yamagata Earthquake (MJMA  7.5–7.7[27]) At least 150 people killed.[27] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 8 m (26 ft) at Kamo.[16]
1939 Akita Earthquake (MJMA  7.0[28]) Onshore event. At least 27 killed and 52 injured.[29]
1940 Shakotan, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.5[28]) Ten people killed, 24 injured, and many homes and fishing boats damaged or destroyed in Hokkaido, North Korea and Russia.[30] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 5 m (16 ft) at Kamenka, Primorsky Krai.[31]
1947 Shakotan, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.1[28]) Felt at Haboro and Rumoi. Tsunami recorded with a height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at Wakkanai and Rishiri Island; 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in) at Haboro and several tens of centimeters at Otaru. Minor damage.[32][33]
1964 Akita offshore Earthquake (Mw  7.0[28]) Tsunami recorded 20 cm (7.9 in) along Niigata and Hokkaido prefectures.[30]
1964 Niigata, Niigata Earthquake (Mw  7.6[28]) At least 36 people killed and over 300 injured. Tsunami with a maximum height of 6 m (20 ft) at Fuya.[34]
1971 Moneron Island, Russia Earthquake (Mw  7.3[28]) Rockfalls and landslides on Moneron Island. Damage to buildings in Shebunino and Gomozavodsk on Sakhalin. Felt VII–VIII (MSK) on Moneron Island and VII (MMI) in southern Sakhalin.[35] Tsunami recorded with a maximum height of 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at Shebunino, Sakhalin.[36]
1983 Akita offshore Earthquake (Mw  7.7[28]) Heavy damage due to liquefaction. At least 104 people dead—4 as a direct effect of the earthquake. One hundred deaths attributed to the tsunami including three deaths in South Korea.[37]
1993 Okushiri, Hokkaido Earthquake (Mw  7.7[28]) At least 230 people killed including 165 on Okushiri. Tsunami recorded 30.6 m (100 ft) on the southern coast of Okushiri; 10 m (33 ft) along the Hokkaido coast; also recorded in Russia and South Korea. Considerable damage from fires, landslides and tsunami. Three people missing along Russia's southeastern coast.
1995 Neftegorsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  7.0[28]) Strike-slip earthquake producing up to 8.1 m (27 ft) of surface offset. Approximately 2,000 people dead in Neftegorsk.[38]
2000 Uglegorsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  6.8[28]) Eight people injured and many buildings damaged.[39]
2004 Niigata Earthquake (Mw  6.6[28]) Sixty eight people killed, 4,805 injured and extensive damage. Maximum intensity 7 on the JMA seismic intensity scale.[40][41]
2007 Niigata Earthquake (Mw  6.6[28]) Eleven people killed, 1,000 injured and 342 houses destroyed.[42][43][44]
2007 (ru) Nevelsk, Sakhalin Earthquake (Mw  6.2[28]) Occurred on a west-dipping reverse fault as opposed to east-dipping faults involved in large Sea of Japan earthquakes. Three tsunami waves measuring up to 3.2 m (10 ft).[45] Two people killed, ten injured and severe damage occurred in Nevelsk. Over half of the town's 11,000 residents displaced. Maximum MSK-64 intensity VIII.[46]
2011 Nagano Earthquake (Mw  6.3[28]) Three people killed and nine injured. Seventy three houses destroyed and 427 damaged.[47]
2014 Nagano Earthquake (Mw  6.3[28]) Forty-one people were injured and 50 houses collapsed.[48] Significant surface ruptures were observed.[49]
2019 Yamagata Earthquake (Mw  6.4) Twenty-six people injured and 149 houses damaged.[50][51]
2024 Noto Earthquake (Mw  7.5.[52]) At least 203 people killed and 52 missing.[53]

Offshore earthquakes

Simulation of the 1983 tsunami

Large earthquakes with epicenters offshore and north of the Noto Peninsula are mostly accompanied by tsunamis. These events have recurrence intervals of 1,000 years.[54] Due to their closer proximity to land, the accompanying tsunamis require a shorter time arriving compared to earthquakes along Japan's Pacific coast.[55] These earthquakes tend to generate considerably large tsunamis.[56]

Hazard

The 75 km (47 mi)-long Akita-oki seismic gap lies off the coast of Akita Prefecture. This plate-boundary segment is located between the rupture zones of the 1833 and 1983 earthquakes and has not experienced a major earthquake during historical times. It has the potential to produce a magnitude 7.5 earthquake, probably by the end of the 21st century. Another seismic gap of 50 km (31 mi) length is thought to exist off the coast of Hokkaido between the 1940 and 1993 rupture zones. [11]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 過去にも繰り返し発生　新潟沖にのびる「ひずみ集中帯」の地震 FNN.jpプライムオンライン 記事：2019年6月19日
  2. ↑ 佐藤比呂志 ほか、「ひずみ集中帯地殻構造探査・三条-弥彦測線の成果 (総特集 日本海東縁ひずみ集中帯の構造とアクティブテクトニクス(2))」 『月刊地球』 32(7), 403–410, July 2010
  3. ↑ Matsuzaki, K.M.; Itaki, T.; Tada, R.; Kamikuri, S. (18 September 2018). "Paleoceanographic history of the Japan Sea over the last 9.5 million years inferred from radiolarian assemblages (IODP Expedition 346 Sites U1425 and U1430)". Progress in Earth and Planetary Science 54 (5): 54. doi:10.1186/s40645-018-0204-7. Bibcode: 2018PEPS....5...54M. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Sato, T.; No, T.; Arai, R.; Miura, S.; Kodaira, S. (9 January 2020). "Transition from continental rift to back-arc basin in the southern Japan Sea deduced from seismic velocity structures". Geophysical Journal International 221 (1): 722–739. doi:10.1093/gji/ggaa006. 
  5. ↑ Tamaki, Kensaku; Honza, Eiichi (20 October 1985). "Incipient subduction and deduction along the eastern margin of the Japan Sea". Tectonophysics 119 (1–4): 381–406. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(85)90047-2. Bibcode: 1985Tectp.119..381T. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0040195185900472. Retrieved 20 June 2022. 
  6. ↑ Nakamura, K. (1983). "Possible nascent trench along the eastern Japan Sea as the convergent boundary between Eurasian and North American plates". Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst.. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570291225295076992. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  7. ↑ 渡辺真人 ほか、日本海東縁，奥尻海嶺および周辺の大地震と海底変動 『JAMSTEC深海研究』 2000年 第16号
  8. ↑ Uda, Tsuyoshi; Hiramatsu, Yukiko; Azuma, Shinji (in ja). 新潟平野～信濃川構造帯の地震と活断層. Niigata University. http://env.sc.niigata-u.ac.jp/~uda/udat/nplane/activefault.pdf. 
  9. ↑ 相田勇、噴火により発生する津波の見積り : 1741年渡島大島の場合 『東京大学地震研究所彙報』 第59冊 第4号, 1985.3.30, pp.519-531
  10. ↑ 佐藤, 比呂志 (1996). "日本列島のインバージョンテクトニクス". Active Fault Research 1996. doi:10.11462/afr1985.1996.15_128. https://doi.org/10.11462/afr1985.1996.15_128. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Ohtake, M. (September 1995). "A seismic gap in the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan as inferred from the time-space distribution of past seismicity". Island Arc 4 (3): 156–165. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1995.tb00140.x. 
  12. ↑ No, T.; Sato, T.; Kodaira, S.; Ishiyama, T.; Sato, H.; Takahashi, N.; Kaneda, Y. (15 August 2014). "The source fault of the 1983 Nihonkai–Chubu earthquake revealed by seismic imaging". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 400: 14–25. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.026. Bibcode: 2014E&PSL.400...14N. 
  13. ↑ Satake, Kenji (19 January 2007). "Volcanic origin of the 1741 Oshima-Oshima tsunami in the Japan Sea". Earth Planets Space 59 (5): 381–390. doi:10.1186/BF03352698. Bibcode: 2007EP&S...59..381S. https://earth-planets-space.springeropen.com/track/pdf/10.1186/BF03352698.pdf. Retrieved 30 March 2021. 
  14. ↑ Yukinobu Okamura (1998). (in ja)Geological Survey Monthly Report (Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology) 49 (1). https://warp.da.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/8173818/www.gsj.jp/data/bull-gsj/49-01_01.pdf. Retrieved 31 March 2021. 
  15. ↑ Sang-Shin Byun; Kyeong Ok Kim (25 February 2021). "A study on the effects of the 1741 tsunami recorded in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty". Journal of Korean Society of Coastal and Ocean Engineers 33 (1): 30–37. doi:10.9765/KSCOE.2021.33.1.30. http://jkscoe.or.kr/journal/view.php?number=361. Retrieved 30 March 2021. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Kawakami, Gentaro; Kase, Yoshihiro; Atsushi, Urabe; Takashimizu, Yasuhiro (2017). "Tsunamis and possible tsunamigenic deposits along the eastern margin of the Japan Sea". Journal of the Geological Society of Japan 123 (10): 857–877. doi:10.5575/geosoc.2017.0054. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322687362. 
  17. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Global Historical Tsunami Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/569, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  18. ↑ Okada, R.; Umeda, K.; Kamataki, T.; Sawai, Y.; Matsumoto, D.; Shimada, Y.; Ioki, K. (2022). "Geological record of 18th and 19th century tsunamis along the Japan Sea coast of Tsugaru Peninsula, northwestern Japan". Marine Geology 453: 106905. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106905. 
  19. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1520, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  20. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Global Historical Tsunami Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/572, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1560, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  22. ↑ Ota, Y.; Matsuda, T.; Naganuma, K. (1976). "佐渡小木地震 (1802年) による土地隆起量の分布とその意義". Earthquake Series 2 29 (1): 55–70. doi:10.4294/zisin1948.29.1_55. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/zisin1948/29/1/29_1_55/_article/-char/ja/. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  23. ↑ Imai, K.; Okada, S.; Takahashi, N.; Ebina, Y.; Tsuji, Y. (2020). "Fault Model of the 1804 Kisakata Earthquake (Akita, Japan)". Seismological Research Letters 91 (5): 2674–2684. doi:10.1785/0220200074. Bibcode: 2020SeiRL..91.2674I. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/ssa/srl/article-abstract/91/5/2674/588188/Fault-Model-of-the-1804-Kisakata-Earthquake-Akita?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Global Historical Tsunami Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/593, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  25. ↑ Nishiyama, A.; Satake, K.; Yata, T.; Urabe, A. (2010). "Re-examination of the damage distribution and the source of the 1828 Sanjo Earthquake in central Japan". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts (American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2010, abstract id. T11B-2066) 2010. Bibcode: 2010AGUFM.T11B2066N. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010AGUFM.T11B2066N/abstract. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  26. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/1720, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Hatori, Tokutaro (1990). "Magnitudes of the 1833 Yamagata-Oki Earthquake in the Japan Sea and its Tsunami" (in ja). Zisin (Journal of the Seismological Society of Japan). Second Series 43 (2): 227–232. doi:10.4294/zisin1948.43.2_227. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/zisin1948/43/2/43_2_227/_pdf/-char/en. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  28. ↑ 28.00 28.01 28.02 28.03 28.04 28.05 28.06 28.07 28.08 28.09 28.10 28.11 28.12 28.13 28.14 ISC (2022), ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1904–2018), Version 9.1, International Seismological Centre, http://www.isc.ac.uk/iscgem/index.php, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  29. ↑ Mizuta, T.; Kagami, H. (2010). "1939.5.1男鹿地震の被害分布に関する文献調査". Architectural Institute of Japan Technical Report Collection 16 (33): 817–820. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/aijt/16/33/16_33_817/_article/-char/ja/. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Murotani, S.; Satake, K.; Ishibe, T.; Harada, T. (12 April 2022). "Reexamination of tsunami source models for the twentieth century earthquakes off Hokkaido and Tohoku along the eastern margin of the Sea of Japan". Earth, Planets and Space 74 (52). doi:10.1186/s40623-022-01607-4. 
  31. ↑ Kaistrenko, V.M.; Razjigaeva, N.G.; Ganzey, L.A.; Gorbunov, A.O.; Nishimura, Y. (2019). "The manifestation of tsunami of August 1, 1940 in the Kamenka settlement, Primorye (new data concerning the old tsunami)". Geosystems of Transition Zones 3 (4): 417–422. doi:10.30730/2541-8912.2019.3.4.417-422. http://journal.imgg.ru/web/full/f2019-4-6.pdf. Retrieved 9 January 2023. 
  32. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Global Historical Tsunami Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5PN93H7, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/tsunami/event-more-info/1776, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  33. ↑ Hatori, T. (1969). "A study of the wave source of the West Hokkaido Tsunami of 1940". Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute 47: 1,063-1,072. https://repository.dl.itc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/record/33345/files/ji0476005.pdf. Retrieved 2023-01-11. 
  34. ↑ "Niigata earthquake of 1964". Japan National Committee on Earthquake Engineering. https://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/vol3_S-78.pdf. Retrieved 11 January 2023. 
  35. ↑ National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K, https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/earthquake/event-more-info/4582, retrieved 2023-01-11 
  36. ↑ Kostenko, I.S.; Zaytsev, A.I.; Minaev, D.D.; Kurkin, A. (January 2018). "The Moneron Tsunami of September 5, 1971, and Its Manifestation on the Sakhalin Island Coast: Numerical Simulation Results". Izvestiya Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics 54 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1134/S0001433818010085. Bibcode: 2018IzAOP..54....1K. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323353978. 
  37. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 1984. Japan Sea Central Region Tsunami of May 26, 1983: A Reconnaissance Report . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/18402
  38. ↑ Arefiev, S.; Rogozhin, E.; Tatevossian, R.; Rivera, L.; Cisternas, A. (1 December 2000). "The Neftegorsk (Sakhalin Island) 1995 earthquake: a rare interplate event". Geophysical Journal International 143 (3): 595–607. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2000.00234.x. Bibcode: 2000GeoJI.143..595A. https://academic.oup.com/gji/article/143/3/595/718283?login=true. Retrieved 11 January 2023. 
  39. ↑ "M 6.8 - 35 km SSE of Uglegorsk, Russia". United States Geological Survey. 4 August 2000. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp0009xws/executive. 
  40. ↑ 平成16年（2004年）新潟県中越地震（確定報） Fire and Disaster Management Agency（Japanese）Data 2009/10/21 Retrieval 2018/04/03
  41. ↑ "震度データベース検索". https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqdb/data/shindo/index.html#20041023175600. 
  42. ↑ "Powerful earthquake strikes Niigata, causes leak at nuclear power plant". Japan News Review. July 16, 2007. http://www.japannewsreview.com/society/chubu/20070716page_id=754. 
  43. ↑ Niigata earthquake death toll rises to eleven Japan News Review , July 23
  44. ↑ "Japanese nuke plant leaked after earthquake". Associated Press. July 16, 2007. http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/07/16/japan.quake.ap/index.html. 
  45. ↑ Konovalov, A. V.; Nagornykh, T. V.; Safonov, D. A.; Lomtev, V. L. (5 December 2015). "Nevelsk earthquakes of August 2, 2007 and seismic setting in the southeastern margin of Sakhalin Island". Russian Journal of Pacific Geology 9 (6): 451–466. doi:10.1134/S1819714015060056. Bibcode: 2015RuJPG...9..451K. 
  46. ↑ Tikhonov, Ivan N.; Kim, Chun U. (2009). "Confirmed prediction of the 2 August 2007 MW 6.2 Nevelsk earthquake (Sakhalin Island, Russia)". Tectonophysics 485 (1–4): 85–93. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2009.12.002. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040195109006775. Retrieved 11 January 2023. 
  47. ↑ "日本付近で発生した主な被害地震（平成８年以降）" (in ja). Japan Meteorological Agency. https://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqev/data/higai/higai1996-new.html. 
  48. ↑ "M 6.2 - 6 km SSE of Hakuba, Japan". https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usb000syza/executive. 
  49. ↑ Suzuki, Yasuhiro; Hirouchi, Daisuke; Watanabe, Mitsuhisa (2015). "Issues raised by the 2014 Kamishiro Fault Earthquake, central Japan". Proceedings of the General Meeting of the Association of Japanese Geographers 2015s: 100262. doi:10.14866/ajg.2015s.0_100262. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ajg/2015s/0/2015s_100262/_article. 
  50. ↑ "山形県沖を震源とする地震による被害及び消防機関等の対応状況(第11報)" (in ja). 24 June 2019. https://www.fdma.go.jp/disaster/info/items/190624_yamagatakenjisin11.pdf. 
  51. ↑ "At least 26 injured in earthquake in Japan's northwest" (in en-US). The Japan Times Online. 2019-06-19. ISSN 0447-5763. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/06/19/national/strong-earthquake-rocks-niigata-japan-meteorological-agency-issues-tsunami-advisory/. 
  52. ↑ "M 7.5 - 42 km NE of Anamizu, Japan". United States Geological Survey. 1 January 2024. https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/us6000m0xl/executive. 
  53. ↑ "Notohantō jishin Ishikawa ken'nai de awasete 110-ri no shibō o kakunin". NHK. 6 January 2024. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20240106/k10014311621000.html. 
  54. ↑ 日本海東縁の古津波堆積物（北海道大） 地震予知連絡会 会報第90巻
  55. ↑ (in ja) ኱䛝䛔⿕ᐖ䛾ὠἼ, 第199回地震予知連絡会（30 May 2013）議事資料, 2013, https://cais.gsi.go.jp/YOCHIREN/activity/199/image199/028.pdf 
  56. ↑ 日本海沿岸での過去の津波災害 地震予知連絡会 会報第90巻



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