Engineering:Broadcast journalism

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Short description: Field of news and journals which are broadcast
TV news reporter in Hong Kong (2007).
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Broadcast journalism is the field of news and journals which are broadcast by electronic methods instead of the older methods, such as printed newspapers and posters. It works on radio (via air, cable, and Internet), television (via air, cable, and Internet) and the World Wide Web. Such media disperse pictures (static and moving), visual text and sounds.

History

Pre-1945

Silent news films were shown in cinemas from the late 19th century.[1] Pathé started producing weekly newsreels in Europe in 1909,[1] and in the US in 1911.[1]

News broadcasts in the United States were initially transmitted over the radio. When radio first became popular, it was not used as a source of information; rather, people listened to the radio solely for entertainment purposes.[2] NBC (National Broadcasting Company) began broadcasts in November 1926, with CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System) entering production on September 25, 1927.[3] Both initially discussed similar topics, such as election results, presidential inaugurations, and other matters of concern to the general public. However, NBC soon emerged as the dominant force for entertainment talent. In response, CBS President William S Paley focused on giving CBS Radio an upscale reputation with better news as well as commentary programs with well-regarded hosts such as Lowell Thomas.[4] Both broadcasters faced stiff competition from the newspapers.

The outbreak of World War II led to a great increase in the quantity of news programming, consuming as much as 20% of the schedules of the major networks.[5] Chief among these reporters was Edward R. Murrow, whose reports from London kept the American public focused on a war far from home.[6] He stayed in London throughout the war and was the first to report on events such as bombings in London and updated the people on Hitler's reign. Murrow gained his fame mainly after reporting on Hitler's German army annexing Austria. Many Americans relied on his broadcasts to gain information about the war.[7]

People found out about the attack on Pearl Harbor through President Roosevelt's broadcast interrupting their daily programming. It set Americans on edge, and people began to rely more heavily on the radio for major announcements throughout World War II.[8]

In 1945 The FCC forced NBC to sell NBC Blue because of antitrust concerns, and the new independent network was renamed ABC (American Broadcasting Company); thus the networks that would later become known as the "Big Three" were in place.

1945–2000

Throughout the 1940s and 1950s television news sources grew, but radio still dominated. It wasn't until John F. Kennedy's assassination in 1963 that television newscasting took off. Radio could only capture the sound of the event, but television showed people the true horror of the assassination.[9] This was one of the first major events in which news companies competed with each other to get the news out to the public first. CBS News was the first to report that Kennedy had been shot and was killed.[10] News crews spent the next several days covering everything happening in Washington, including Kennedy's funeral.[11] This set the standard for news stations to have to cover major events quicker and get them out to the public as they were happening. The JFK assassination helped to transform television journalism to how it is today, with instantaneous coverage and live coverages at major events. Television offered faster coverage than radio and allowed viewers to feel more as if they were experiencing the event because they could visualize exactly what was going on.[12]

Women had a hard time immersing themselves into radio news seeing as most of the radio broadcasts were men. There was a small number of women who hosted programs that were for homemakers and were on entertainment broadcast.[13] After World War II, the doors for women in broadcasting opened up. This was also due to the shortage of men that were home during the war, so news outlets looked to women to fill those gaps of times. In the 1960s and 1970s larger numbers of women began to enter into broadcast news field.

A general shift over time happened in the style of the evening newscasts in most countries. In the 1950s, television was novel enough that it was considered entertainment. In the 1960s and 70s, television newscasts tended to be unusually "serious" by later standards, featuring more "hard news" and less light entertainment mixed in.[14] The CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite is one famous example, although similar styles took place on the BBC in the United Kingdom, on shows in the Eastern Bloc, and so on, with high viewership concentrated in just a few prestige newscasts. This was something of an artifact of both technology and media culture: few channels were available, and those that did tended to take news casting seriously, even if lighter news could potentially have gotten more viewers.[14]

Government regulation also affected the news landscape: in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission forced networks to abide by strict public-interest requirements that required broadcasting news, while television in the Soviet Union was strictly regulated by the government which looked on frivolous topics with disfavor. In the 1980s and 90s, this tended to fall away as a consequence of cable and satellite technology allowing a more fragmented market and government reluctance to interfere as closely. Increased choice in channels led to viewers declining to watch overly serious newscasts; successful network news shows tended to be ones that either focused on entertainment or at least mixed it in, such as morning talk shows or news magazines such as Today and 60 Minutes.[15] Audiences that prefer more serious news have migrated to news-focused stations such as CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC for American examples.[15]

These changes have been criticized as having effects on larger society. An example from television in Italy is a study of Mediaset's rollout in Italy in the 1980s found that Mediaset's programming was slanted against news and educational content than its competitor RAI (Radiotelevisione italiana). A study in 2019 found that individuals in regions with an earlier rollout of Mediaset were more susceptible to populist appeals and less interested in "sophisticated" political arguments.[16] The study said the effect included populist parties in general that offered simple slogans and easy cure-alls, including non-Berlusconi populist parties such as the Five Star Movement.[17]

21st century

From 2000 to 2010, overall viewership of television broadcast news continued to decline. Some news-adjacent cable programs gained fame and success in this era (such as the comedy-focused The Daily Show With Jon Stewart and the commentary-focused The O'Reilly Factor). However, their gains did not offset the continuing steep decline in viewership of mainline network news.[18] This era saw diversification and fragmentation proceed even further as new niche networks gained prominence such as the business-focused CNBC, Bloomberg Television, and Fox Business. Instead, people used the Internet for news rather than television broadcasts, both in mainline sites such as ones runs by newspapers as well as independent blogs and message boards with other Internet-users sharing opinions and news[18] Internet news, while a competitor, tended not to use live broadcast as a style, except when streaming existing television programs. Another change in news broadcasts in the 2000s, at least in the United States, was a rediscovered interest in health news and consumer news – areas of special interest to women that had traditionally been written off as too minor for the evening newscasts, but proved to be steady sources of viewer curiosity and ratings.[18]

Both radio and television are major sources for broadcast journalism today, even with rapidly expanding technology. Television still focuses on covering major events, but radio broadcasts focus more on analyzing stories rather than reporting breaking news.[19] Although the history of broadcast journalism has its origins in the early days of radio transmission, it is television with its attractive visuals and rapid dissemination that has empowered broadcast journalism to emerge as the most influential form of journalism until the rise of the Internet and the new forms of journalism associated with digital technologies.[20] The internet often beats out broadcast journalism in terms of reporting breaking news, and the field of broadcast journalism is constantly having to adapt to the changing technology of today.

Broadcast journalism by nation

Canada

Terrestrial television

CBC Television, Global, and CTV each produce national evening newscasts (The National, Global National and CTV National News, respectively), which unlike the American network newscasts do not compete with one another in a common timeslot; while Global National airs at the same early evening time slot as the American evening network newscasts, The National's 10:00 p.m. Eastern Time slot competes against primetime entertainment programming on the private broadcast networks, while CTV National News airs against locally produced 11:00 p.m. newscasts on other stations. The National, which has aired on CBC Television since 1954, is the longest-running national network newscast in Canada. All three networks also produce weekly newsmagazines: CBC's The Fifth Estate (aired since 1975), Global's 16x9 (aired since 2008), and CTV's W5 (aired since 1966 and currently the longest-running network newsmagazine in Canada). CTV's Your Morning is the sole national morning news program on broadcast television in Canada, and replaced Canada AM, which aired since 1975. Most CTV owned-and-operated stations west of the Ontario-Manitoba border dropped the program during the summer and fall of 2011 in favor of locally produced morning newscasts. The Sunday morning talk show is relatively uncommon on Canadian television; for many years, the closest program having similarities to the format was CTV's news and interview series Question Period; Global would eventually debut the political affairs show The West Block in November 2011.

Specialty television

Canada is host to several 24-hour news channels on specialty television, including CBC News Network and CTV News Channel in English, and Ici RDI and Le Canal Nouvelles (LCN) in French. BNN Bloomberg operates as a financial news channel, while Sun News Network briefly operated from 2011 to 2015 as a conservative-leaning competitor to the other national news channels. There are also a handful of regional news channels, such as CP24 (which covers the Greater Toronto Area), and Global News: BC 1, which covers Vancouver. CityNews Channel formerly operated as a competitor to CP24, although that channel shut down after a year and a half of operation in May 2013

The U.S. CNN, Fox News, HLN, and MSNBC, as well as a number of other international news channels (such as, most commonly, Al Jazeera English and BBC World News) are authorized for distribution by Canadian television providers by the CRTC.

United States

Broadcast television

For most of the American public, local news and national TV newscasts are the primary news sources.[21] Not only the numbers of audience viewers, but the effect on each viewer is considered more persuasive ("The medium is the message").[22] Television is dominated by attractive visuals (including beauty, action, and shock), with short soundbites and fast "cuts" (changes of camera angle). Television viewing numbers have become fragmented, with the introduction of cable news channels, such as Cable News Network (CNN), Fox News Channel and MSNBC.

Local newscasts
A journalist works on location at the Loma Prieta Earthquake in San Francisco's Marina District October 1989.




Network world news programs

Spanish-language news programs are provided by Univision, which produces early and late evening editions of its flagship evening news program Noticiero Univision seven nights a week (and was the only nightly newscast on the major Spanish networks until Telemundo resumed its weekend newscasts in October 2014), along with weekday afternoon newsmagazine Primer Impacto and weekday morning program Despierta America; Telemundo, which has a daily flagship evening newscast Noticias Telemundo, along with weekday morning program Hoy Día (which replaced Un Nuevo Día in 2021) and weekday afternoon newsmagazine Al Rojo Vivo; Estrella TV, which produces the weekday-only flagship news program Noticiero Estrella TV and the primetime newscast Cierre de Edición; and Azteca América, which produces morning, early and late evening newscasts on weekdays under the umbrella title Hechos. In the cases of Univision and Telemundo, both of their evening news programs compete with national evening news programs on their English-language competitors.

Cable television

24-hour news channels are devoted to current events around the clock. They are often referred to as cable news channels. The format was originated by the cable television channel CNN (Cable News Network), which was established in 1980.[23] Many other television channels have since been established, including what has become known as the Big Three; CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC.[24]


Radio

Israel

Radio

Education

Many young journalists start out by learning about broadcast journalism through high school courses. They learn how to navigate the newsroom and equipment, and they learn the ethics and standards of journalism.[25] Although learning the responsibilities of a journalist is important, education is required to work in broadcast journalism. A bachelor's degree in, "...journalism, broadcast journalism or interactive media,"[25] can lead to a career in broadcast production. However, a heavy amount of the education they receive is hands-on activity through internships and working for on-campus broadcasting stations. This real world view of the field combined with classes that teach students the ins and outs of writing, capturing video, interviewing and editing creates a developed and prepared journalist.[25] Finding a job in the broadcasting field can be tough due to the decreased viewing and limited number of stations in each location, but the online media presence is causing employment to be, "...predicted to decline by 8% from 2014 to 2024."[25]

News jobs

News anchors (formerly "anchormen") serve as masters-of-ceremonies and are usually shown facing a professional video camera in a television studio while reading unseen teleprompters. The anchors are often in pairs (co-anchors), who sit side by side and often alternate their reading. Meteorologists stand in front of chroma key backgrounds to describe weather forecasting and show maps and pictures. Reporters research and write the stories and sometimes use video editing to prepare the story for air into a "package". Reporters are usually engaged in electronic field production (EFP) and are accompanied by a videographer at the scenes of the news; the latter holds the camera. The [ videographer] or assistants manage the audio and lighting; they are in charge of setting up live television shots and might edit using a non-linear editing system (NLE). Segment producers choose, research and write stories, as well as deciding the timing and arrangement of the newscast. Associate producer, if any, specialize in other elements of the show such as graphics.

Production jobs

Main article: Engineering:Television crew

A newscast director is in charge of television show preparation, including assigning camera and talent (cast) positions on the set, as well as selecting the camera shots and other elements for either recorded or live television video production. The technical director (TD) operates the video switcher, which controls and mixes all the elements of the show. At smaller stations, the Director and Technical Director are the same person.

A graphics operator operates a character generator (CG) that produces the lower third on-screen titles and full-page digital on-screen graphics. The audio technician operates the audio mixing console. The technician is in charge of the microphones, music and audio tape. Often, production assistants operate the teleprompters and professional video cameras and serve as lighting and rigging technicians (grips).

Business changes

Broadcast journalism is changing rapidly, causing issues within the business as well. Many people can no longer find jobs in broadcast journalism because much more is online and does not even need to be broadcast by a person. Others are being laid off to invest more money into new technologies. Other changes include innovations allowing TV stations to better alert viewers in emergencies and have higher quality services.[26]

Online convergence

Convergence is the sharing and cross-promoting of content from a variety of media, all of which, in theory, converge and become one medium. In broadcast news, the internet is a key to convergence. Frequently, broadcast journalists also write text stories for the Web, usually accompanied by the graphics and sound of the original story. Websites offer the audience an interactive form where they can learn more about a story, can be referred to related articles, can offer comments for publication and can print stories at home. Technological convergence also lets newsrooms collaborate with other media, broadcast outlets sometimes have partnerships with their print counterparts.

Social media

Citizen broadcast journalism is a new form of technology that has allowed regular civilians to post stories they see through outlets such as Snapchat, Facebook, and Twitter. It has become a new trend that some allegedly fear will take over broadcast journalism as it is known. News companies, like Fox News, are employing citizen journalists, which is a new phenomenon in journalism.[27]

Fake news

The terms "fake news" and "yellow journalism" have taken over broadcast journalism throughout the years. Its impact on broadcast journalism played a role in how news about the election was spread.[28] Fake news defines how viewers see news that may be misleading or false. The main aim of yellow journalism is to gather the attention of people in the society.[29]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Fielding, Raymond (2015). The American Newsreel A Complete History, 1911–1967 2d Edition.. McFarland Incorporated. pp. 44–46. ISBN 9780786466108. 
  2. ↑ "Edward R. Murrow: Inventing Broadcast Journalism". 12 June 2006. http://www.historynet.com/edward-r-murrow-inventing-broadcast-journalism.htm. 
  3. ↑ "The Museum of Broadcast Communications – Encyclopedia of Television – News Network". http://www.museum.tv/eotv/newsnetwork.htm. 
  4. ↑ Ponce de Leon, Charles (2015). That's the Way It Is: A History of Television News in America. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-25609-2. 
  5. ↑ Ponce de Leon 2015, pp. 23–25.
  6. ↑ "A Brief Look at the History of Broadcast Journalism" (in en-US). Student Resources. April 1, 2015. https://www.nyfa.edu/student-resources/history-of-broadcast-journalism/. 
  7. ↑ "History of Broadcast Journalism". http://history.journalism.ku.edu/1930/1930.shtml. 
  8. ↑ Pinheiro, Bob. "Radio Reports Japan's Attack on Pearl Harbor". http://www.modestoradiomuseum.org/radio%20reports%20pearl.html. 
  9. ↑ "12 Events that Triggered Media Coverage Evolution". The Balance. https://www.thebalance.com/how-media-outlets-cover-news-2315249. 
  10. ↑ Sneed, Tierney (November 14, 2013). "How John F. Kennedy's Assassination Changed Television Forever". https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2013/11/14/how-john-f-kennedy-assassination-changed-television-forever. 
  11. ↑ "How the JFK assassination transformed media coverage". Reuters. 2016-11-21. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-jfk-media-idUSBRE9AK11N20131121. 
  12. ↑ "Television in the United States - The year of transition: 1959". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/television-in-the-United-States/The-year-of-transition-1959#toc283615. 
  13. ↑ Hosley, David (1987). Hard news: women in broadcast journalism. University of Michigan: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313254772. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Ponce de Leon 2015, pp. 7–12.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Ponce de Leon 2015, pp. 12–14.
  16. ↑ Tesei, Andrea; Pinotti, Paolo; Durante, Ruben (2019). "The Political Legacy of Entertainment TV" (in en). American Economic Review 109 (7): 2497–2530. doi:10.1257/aer.20150958. ISSN 0002-8282. 
  17. ↑ "How trashy TV made children dumber and enabled a wave of populist leaders". The Washington Post. July 20, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/20/how-trashy-tv-made-children-dumber-enabled-wave-populist-leaders/. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Ponce de Leon 2015, pp. 259–263.
  19. ↑ "Journalism Then and Now" (in en-US). Digital Journalism. 2011-11-06. https://imdigitaljournalism.wordpress.com/journalism-then-and-now/. 
  20. ↑ Maniou & Papadopoulou (2019). "Broadcast Journalism: Television". The International Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1002/9781118841570.iejs0187. ISBN 9781118841679. 
  21. ↑ "1. Pathways to news" (in en-US). Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. 2016-07-07. http://www.journalism.org/2016/07/07/pathways-to-news/. 
  22. ↑ Marshall MacLuhan (1995). Understanding media. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-63159-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=8qwsXkmjEWUC. 
  23. ↑ Hughes, Lain. "CNN" (in en). https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/cnn. 
  24. ↑ Barr, Jeremy (May 24, 2021). "Can cable news win over young viewers? At MSNBC, a 40-year-old new president is going to try.". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/media/2021/05/24/msnbc-rashida-jones/. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 "5 Steps to Becoming a Broadcast Journalist" (in en). http://learn.org/articles/Broadcast_Journalism_5_Steps_to_Becoming_a_Broadcast_Journalist.html. 
  26. ↑ "Television Legislative and Regulatory Issues | Advocacy | National Association of Broadcasters" (in en). http://www.nab.org/advocacy/televisionIssues.asp. 
  27. ↑ "Citizen journalists are about to take over newsrooms" (in en-US). New York Post. 2016-03-09. https://nypost.com/2016/03/09/citizen-journalists-are-about-to-take-over-newsrooms/. 
  28. ↑ "Ethics in the News - Fake News and Facts in the Post-Truth Era" (in en-GB). Ethical Journalism Network. http://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/ethics-in-the-news/fake-news. 
  29. ↑ "Yellow Journalism". 26 September 2018. https://medium.com/@nimcjahmedabad/what-is-yellow-journalism-and-what-are-the-effects-of-yellow-journalism-55ed0824ecd3. 

Further reading

ja:報道番組



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