History:Umma

From HandWiki
Short description: Ancient Sumerian city in modern-day Iraq


Umma
Umma is located in Iraq
Umma
Umma
Shown within Iraq
LocationDhi Qar Province, Iraq
RegionMesopotamia
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 31°40′02″N 45°53′15″E / 31.66722°N 45.8875°E / 31.66722; 45.8875
TypeSettlement
Site notes
Excavation dates1854, 1885, 1999-2002, 2017-2019
ArchaeologistsWilliam Loftus, John Punnett Peters, Nawala Ahmed Al-Mutawalli, Drahoslav Hulínek
Location of the city of Umma in Sumer

Umma (Sumerian: 𒄑𒆵𒆠 ummaKI;[1] in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site.[2] Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been suggested that it was located at Umm al-Aqarib, less than 7 km (4.3 mi) to its northwest or was even the name of both cities.[3][4] One or both were the leading city of the Early Dynastic kingdom of Gišša, with the most recent excavators putting forth that Umm al-Aqarib was prominent in EDIII but Jokha rose to preeminence later. The town of KI.AN was also nearby.[5] KI.AN, which was destroyed by Rimush, a ruler of the Akkadian Empire. There are known to have been six gods of KI.AN including Gula KI.AN and Sara KI.AN.[6]

The tutelary gods of Umma were Sara and Ninura. It is known that the ED ruler Ur-Lumma built a temple to the god Enki-gal and one to the god Nagar-pa'e at Umma.[7]

In the early Sumerian literary composition Inanna's descent to the netherworld, Inanna dissuades demons from the netherworld from taking Shara, patron of Umma, who was living in squalor.[8]

History

The site was occupied at least as far back as the Uruk period. A number of proto-cuneiform came from there. While most early textual sources are from Early Dynastic III, a few tablets and a plaque from ED I/II came from there.[9]

Early Dynastic period

Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures

Because the two sites were not excavated until modern times, based on the many looted texts available to them, earlier archaeologists grouped together the ancient cities during the Early Dynastic period of Gišša and Umma into the single geographic name of Umma. Modern excavation at these sites has clarified that.[2] Gišša ceased occupation after the ED and only one ruler is known, based on a lapis lazuli bead reading "To the goddess Inanna, Aka, king of Gišša (dedicated this bead)".[7]

Best known for its long frontier conflict with Lagash, as reported c. 2400 BC by Entemena,[10][11] the city reached its zenith c. 2350 BC, under the rule of Lugal-Zage-Si who also controlled Ur and Uruk.

Sargonic period

An Early Dynastic inscription of Lugalannatum from Umma (Collection of the Louvre Museum)

Under the Akkadian Empire Umma was a major power and economic center rivaled only by Adab and Uruk. Eleven governors under Akkad are known as well as two who may have been under Gutium. One, Lu-Utu, reports building a temple for Ninhursag and another for Ereshkigal. Namahni, a governor from the time of Iarlagan of Gutium, records building the E-ula temple of Ninura.[12][13] The Sargonic period ruler of Umma Lugalanatum built the temple E-gidru there.

"Lugalannatum prince of Umma... built the E.GIDRU [Sceptre] Temple at Umma, buried his foundation deposit [and] regulated the orders. At that time, Si'um was king of Gutium."[13]

Ur III period

Clay tablet. Delivery certificate. Reign of Shu-Sin of Ur, 21st century BCE. From Umma, Iraq. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin

Under the Ur III dynasty, Umma became an important provincial center. Several governors of Umma under Ur are known, Aa-kala, Dadaga, and Ur-Lisi, all sons of one Ur-Nigar, and Ninbilia, wife of Aa-kala.[14][15][16] Most of the over 30,000 tablets recovered from the site are administrative and economic texts from that time.[17] They permit an excellent insight into affairs in Umma.[18] A year name of Ur III ruler Shu-Sin was "Year Shu-Sin the king of Ur built the temple of Shara in Umma". The next ruler Ibbi-Sin also had a year name of "Year Ibbi-Sin the king of Ur built the temple of Shara in Umma". The Umma calendar of Shulgi (c. 21st century BC) is the immediate predecessor of the later Babylonian calendar, and indirectly of the post-exilic Hebrew calendar.

In the following Isin-Larsa period, a ruler of Larsa, Sumuel (c. 1894-1866 BC), lists as one of his later year names "Year Umma was destroyed".

Archaeology

Tell Jokha

Aerial view of Umma

The site of Tell Jokha was visited by William Loftus in 1854 and John Punnett Peters of the University of Pennsylvania in 1885. Peters found it to be half covered with sand dunes and found fragments of worked stone and copper fragments.[19][20] In the early 1900s, many illegally excavated Umma tablets from the Third Dynasty of Ur began to appear on the antiquities market.[21] From 1999 to 2002 Jokha was worked by an Iraqi team led by Nawala Ahmed Al-Mutawalli, recovering a number of tablets and bullae from the Early Dynastic, Sargonic, Ur III, and Old Babylonian periods as well as an Ur III period temple and Old Babylonian residences. The cuneiform tablets are in the process of being published.[22][23][24][25][26] In 2016, a team from the Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute led by Drahoslav Hulínek began excavations at Tell Jokha focusing on the Temple of Shara. A trench (Trench 1) excavated in 2016 showed the temple had two construction phases (Level 3 and 4). Level 4 is thought to date from the Old Akkadian period. In 2017 a square at the top (Trench 2) of the tell was opened, amidst numerous looter holes, and at Level 5 found Early Dynastic construction. In 2019 and 2020 eighteen cuneiform tablets from the Old Babylonian, Ur III, Old Akkadian and Early Dynastic periods were found in Trench 2, three in situ. A topographic survey showed that in the Early Dynastic period Umma reached an area of 400 hectares, with a 40 hectare city center.[27][28]

Umm al-Aqarib (Gišša)

Map of a property belonging to the city of Ur III Umma, indicating the acreage of each parcel

The site of Umm al-Aqarib (located at 45.80°E longitude and 31.60°N latitude) lies about 6 kilometers southeast of Tell Jokha, covers about 5 square kilometers and is made up of 21 mounds the largest of which is 20 meters above the level of the plain. It is thought to be the ancient city of Gišša and was abandoned after the Early Dynastic period. The location was first visited by John Punnett Peters in the late 1800s, finding it relatively free from sand and featuring two prominent elevations of baked bricks set with bitumen.[20]It was excavated for a total of 7 seasons in 1999–2002 (led by Donny George Youkhanna and Haider A. Urebi) and 2008–2010 (led by Taha Kerim Abod) under difficult conditions.[29][30] At Umm al-Aqarib, archaeologists uncovered levels from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2300 BC), including residences, palaces, and several monumental buildings, including two Early Dynastic temples (the White Temple and Temple H). About 70 "cuneiform sources" were also excavated.[31][32][33][34] The tutelary god is thought to be Ama-usum-ga/Usumgal-ana.[35]

Tell Shmet

Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC "For ..., Il, king of Umma, son of Eandamu, grandson of Enakale king of Umma, built his/her temple"

The site of Tell Shmet (also Tell Schmidt) also lies nearby, around 10 kilometers to the northwest of Umma and within visual distance of Zabala. It was part of the Umma province. The site measures 990 by 720 meters (712,800 square meters). The main Sargonic and Ur III remains of the site were destroyed by a Ministry of Agriculture program to plant trees so as to prevent sand dunes. In response to looting which began in 1994 the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage conducted salvage excavations in 2001 and 2002 under Mohammad Sabri Abdulraheem.[36][37][38][39] All of the paper records of the excavation were lost in looting of residential areas after the 2003 war. Plano-convex bricks and a residential area of the Early Dynastic III and Akkadian periods were uncovered. Finds included 67 clay cuneiform tablets, dozens of cylinder seals, and a number of stone and metal objects. The tablets mostly date ED III with the latest being Ur III. The tablets support the proposal that the ancient name of the site was Ki.anki. They mention the names of the gods Ninazu and Dumuzi-Maru. Only some of the tablets have been published.[40]

Looting

During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, after Coalition bombing began, looters descended upon the site which is now pockmarked with hundreds of ditches and pits. The prospects for future official excavation and research were seriously compromised in the process.[41] In 2011, Global Heritage Network, which monitors threats to cultural heritage sites in developing nations, released aerial images comparing Umma in 2003 and 2010, showing a landscape devastated by looters' trenches during that time—approximately 1.12 square km in total.[42] Confiscated Umma area cuneiform tablets continue to make their way to the Museum of Iraq, including a group of 1500 in 2009.[43]

Rulers of Umma

First Dynasty of Umma

Ruler Proposed reign Notes
Pabilgagaltuku c. 2500 BC A governor of Umma, he was captured by Ur-Nanshe of Lagash.[44]
Ush
("Ninta")		 Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures.jpg c. 2450 BC Attacked Lagash and removed the boundary stone set up by Mesilim, and was defeated by Eannatum.[44]
Enakalle
Enakalle on the plate of queen Bara-irnun.jpg
 c. 2440 BC Made a boundary treaty with Eannatum.[45]
Ur-Lumma Ur-Lumma, king of Umma, son of En-a-Kale tablet.jpg c. 2430 BC Son of Enakalle. Challenged Enannatum I, but was defeated by his successor Enmetena.[45][44]
Il Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07155 (orientation).jpg c. 2420 BC Successor to Ur-Lumna. He rebelled against Enannatum II, and destroyed the dynasty of Ur-Nanshe.[45]
Gishakidu This cuneiform text gives the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. Circa 2350 BCE. From Umma, Iraq. The British Museum, London.jpg c. 2410 BC Son of Il[44]
Edin c. 2400 BC Ruler of Umma [44]
Me'annedu c. 2400 BC Ruler of Umma, reigned at least 29 years[44][46]
Ushurdu? c. 2370 BC Ruler of Umma[44]
Ukush Lugalzagesi king of Uruk king of the Land son of Ukush.jpg c. 2360 BC Father of Lugal-Zage-Si.[44]
Lugal-Zage-Si Prisoner exiting a cage, on an Akkadian Empire victory stele circa 2300 BCE, Louvre Museum.jpg c. 2350 BC Conqueror of all Sumer, founder of the third dynasty of Uruk, vanquished by Sargon of Akkad.[44]

Second Dynasty of Umma

Ruler Proposed reign Notes
Lugalanatum Gutian inscription-AO 4783-gradient.jpg c. 2120 BC Vassal to the Gutian Dynasty.[44]

Gallery

  • Stele of Ushumgal, 2900-2700 BC. Probably from Umma.[47]

  • Vase of King Gishakidu, king of Umma, and son of Ur-Lumma. This cuneiform text gives the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. c. 2350 BC. From Umma, Iraq. The British Museum, London

  • Votive plaque offered by Bara-irnun, queen of Umma, to God Šara in gratitude for sparing her life. Date c. 2370 BC.[48]

An official of Umma, c. 2400 BC
Diorite statue of Lupad, an official of the city of Umma, with inscriptions recording the purchase of land in Lagash. Early Dynastic Period III, c. 2400 BC.[49]

See also

  • Cities of the Ancient Near East
  • List of Mesopotamian dynasties

References

  1. ↑ "ORACC – Umma". http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/cbd/qpn-x-places/qpn-x-places.x005723.html. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lambert, W. G. (1990). "The Names of Umma". Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49 (1): 75–80. doi:10.1086/373421. ISSN 0022-2968. https://www.jstor.org/stable/544410. 
  3. ↑ Bartasch, Vitali (2015). "On the Sumerian City UB-meki, the Alleged "Umma"". Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 2. ISSN 1540-8760. https://cdli.ucla.edu/pubs/cdlb/2015/cdlb2015_002.html. 
  4. ↑ Almamori, Haider O. (2014). "Gišša (Umm Al-Aqarib), Umma ( Jokha), and Lagaš in the Early Dynastic III Period". Al-Rāidān 35: 1–37. 
  5. ↑ Marek Stępień, "The Economic Status of Governors in Ur III Times: An Example of the Governor of Umma", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 64, pp. 17–30, 2012
  6. ↑ Peat, J. A., "An Offering - List from the Third Dynasty of Ur", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 19–22, 1975
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Frayne, Douglas, "G͂iša and Umma", Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC), University of Toronto Press, pp. 357-368, 2008 ISBN:978-0802035868
  8. ↑ "Inana's descent to the nether world". https://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.4.1#. 
  9. ↑ Uruk period proto-cuneiform tablets from Umma
  10. ↑ [1]Carrie Hritz, "The Umma-Lagash Border Conflict: A View from Above", The Umma-Lagash Border Conflict: A View from Above, From Sherds to Landscapes: Studies on the Ancient Near East in Honor of McGuire Gibson, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 71, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, pp. 109-130, 2021 ISBN:978-1-61491-063-3
  11. ↑ Cooper, Jerrold S. (1983). Reconstructing history from ancient inscriptions : the Lagash-Umma border conflict. Malibu: Undena Publications. ISBN 0-89003-059-6. OCLC 10304478. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10304478. 
  12. ↑ Foster., Benjamin R., "Archives and Record-keeping in Sargonic Mesopotamia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie , vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 1-27, 1982
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 [2]Douglas R. Frayne, "Umma", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 261-268, 1993 ISBN:0-8020-0593-4
  14. ↑ Frayne, Douglas, "Table III: List of Ur III Period Governors", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. xli-xliv, 1997
  15. ↑ T. Maeda, "Father of Akala and Dadaga, governors of Umma", ASJ 12, pp. 71 - 78, 1990
  16. ↑ P. A. Parr, "Ninhilia: Wife of Ayakala, Governor of Umma", JCS 26, pp. 90 – 111, 1974
  17. ↑ [3]I. J. Gelb, "Sargonic Texts in the Louvre Museum", Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary 4, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1970 ISBN:978-0-22-662308-5
  18. ↑ Parr, P. A. (1972-06-01). "A Letter of Ur-Lisi, Governor of Umma". Journal of Cuneiform Studies 24 (4): 135–136. doi:10.2307/1359635. ISSN 0022-0256. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/1359635. 
  19. ↑ Loftus, William K. (1857). Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52. Robert Carter & Brothers. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4ZiBAAAAIAAJ. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Peters, John P. (1897). Nippur; Or, Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates: The Narrative of the University of Pennsylvania Expedition to Babylonia in the Years 1888–1890. University of Pennsylvania Babylonian Expedition. Putnam. https://archive.org/download/nippurorexplorat02pete/nippurorexplorat02pete.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Georges Contenau, Contribution a l'Histoire Economique d'Umma, Librairie Champion, 1915
  22. ↑ Al-Mutawalli, N., "Excavation of Umma (modern Jokha), seasons 1 & 2.", Sumer 54, pp. 53-82, 2009
  23. ↑ Al-Harbi, H. Sh, N. A. Al-Mutawali, and K. M. Khaleel, "Jokha (Umma): The Excavation Results of the Third and Fourth Seasons (2001–2002)", Sumer 56, pp. 49-92, 2011
  24. ↑ Almamori, H. O., "Gišša (Umm Al-Aqarib), Umma (Jokha), and Lagaš in the Early Dynastic III Period", Al-Rafidan 35, pp. 1–37, 2014
  25. ↑ Al-Mutawalli, N.. "Administrative Cuneiform Texts from Umma in the Iraq Museum Excavation of Shara Temple (1999–2000)", Sumer 55, pp. 45–86, 2010
  26. ↑ Mutawalli, Nawala Ahmed al-; Ismaʻel, Khalid Salim; Sallaberger, Walther; Harbi, Hamza Shahad al-; Otto, Adelheid (2019). Bullae from the Shara Temple = Wuṣūlāt at-tasallum (bulla) min maʻbad aš-Šārā. Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-11159-1. OCLC 1101969238. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1101969238. 
  27. ↑ Drahoslav Hulínek and Tibor Lieskovský, "Report Archaeological project SAHI - Tell Jokha, 2016", Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute, 2016
  28. ↑ Hulínek, Drahoslav, et al., eds., "Preliminary Report Archaeological Project SAHI-Tell Jokha, 2019: Season 3", Slovak Archaeological and Historical Institute-SAHI, 2020
  29. ↑ Almamori, H. A., "The Excavation Results of the Third and Fourth Seasons at Umm al-Aqarib (2001–2002)", Sumer 52, pp. 242–93, 2003-2004 (Arabic)
  30. ↑ Ławecka, Dorota, "Bent or Straight Axis? Temple Plans in Early Dynastic Southern Babylonia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 206-228, 2014
  31. ↑ Almamori, Haider Oraibi (2014). "The Early Dynastic Monumental Buildings at Umm Al-Aqarib". Iraq 76: 149–187. doi:10.1017/irq.2014.10. ISSN 0021-0889. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43307193. 
  32. ↑ Abid, Ameer Najim, "The architecture of white temples in the cities of ancient central and southern Mesopotamia (Uruk-Umm Al-Aqarib-Tal Al-Uqair) A comparative study", ISIN Journal 5, pp. 53-79, 2023
  33. ↑ Youkhanna, Donny George, H. O. Al-Mamori, and L. Werr, "Temple ‘H’ at Umm al Aqarib", Of Pots and Plans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday. London: Nabu, pp. 379-385, 2002
  34. ↑ Oraibi, Almamori Haider Abdollwahed, "Umm al-Aqarib: an architectural and textual study of a Sumerian City", Dissertation, 2013
  35. ↑ Frayne, Douglas R., "The Struggle for Hegemony in ‘Early Dynastic II’Sumer", The Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies Journal 4, pp. 37-75, 2009
  36. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "The final report of the excavations in Shmet – 1st season 2001", SBAH, Ministry of Culture, Rep. of Iraq (in Arabic), 2001
  37. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "Prospecting at the site of Shmeet 2001–2002", Sumer 52, pp. 201–241 (in Arabic) 2003
  38. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S., "The site of Shmet in the light of archaeological excavations", Unpublished Ph. D. thesis submitted to the Dept. of Archhaeology, College of Arts, University of Baghdad (in Arabic), 2014
  39. ↑ Abdulraheem, M. S. and B. K. Abboodi, "The final report of the excavations in Shmet – 2nd season 2002", SBAH, Ministry of Culture, Rep. of Iraq (in Arabic), 2002
  40. ↑ Salman Fahad, Sa’ad and Abdul-Qadir Abbas, Raghad., "Cuneiform Tablets from Shmet from the Excavation Season of 2001", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 2020
  41. ↑ "Simon Jenkins: In Iraq's four-year looting frenzy, allies the vandals" (in en). 2007-06-07. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/jun/08/comment.iraq. 
  42. ↑ "Satellite Imagery Briefing: Monitoring Endangered Cultural Heritage Sites". http://globalheritagefund.org/images/uploads/docs/GHNBriefingDocument.pdf. 
  43. ↑ Saadoon, Abather Rahi, "Sumerian Texts from the Archive of the Princess Šāt-Eštar in the Collections of the Iraq Museum", Iraq 80, pp. 213-231, 2018
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 44.6 44.7 44.8 44.9 Sallaberger, Walther; Schrakamp, Ingo (2015). History & Philology. Walther Sallaberger & Ingo Schrakamp (eds), Brepols. pp. 74–80. ISBN 978-2-503-53494-7. https://www.assyriologie.uni-muenchen.de/personen/professoren/sallaberger/publ_sallaberger/wasa_schrakamp_2015_arcane1.pdf. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Van De Mieroop, Marc (2004). A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000-323 BC. Wiley. pp. 50–51. ISBN 9780631225522. 
  46. ↑ Armando Bramanti, "Three Administrative Texts from the Time of Me’annedu", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 69, pp. 33–47, 2017
  47. ↑ "Stele of Ushumgal". https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/329079. 
  48. ↑ "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=11850. 
  49. ↑ I. J. Gelb, P. Steinkeller, and R. M. Whiting Jr, "OIP 104. Earliest Land Tenure Systems in the Near East: Ancient Kudurrus", Oriental Institute Publications 104 Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 1989, 1991 ISBN 978-0-91-898656-6 Text Plates

Further reading

  • B. Alster, "Geštinanna as Singer and the Chorus of Uruk and Zabalam", UET 6/1 22, JCS, vol. 37, pp. 219–28, 1985
  • [4]Bedale, Charles Lees, "Sumerian Tablets from Umma in the John Rylands Library, Manchester", The University Press, 1915
  • B. R. Foster, "Umma in the Sargonic Period", Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 20, Hamden, 1982
  • Georges Contenau, "Umma sous la Dynastie d'Ur", Librarie Paul Geuthner, 1916
  • Jacob L. Dahl, "The Ruling Family of Ur III Umma: A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago", Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten/Netherlands Institute for the Near East (NINO), 2007, ISBN:90-6258-319-9
  • [5]Romina Laurito, Alessandra Mezzasalma, Lorenzo Verderame, "Texts and Labels: A Case Study from Neo-Sumerian Umma", Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005 Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, and Martha T. Roth, eds., Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 62, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2008 ISBN:978-1-885923-54-7
  • Lambert, Maurice, "L’occupation Du Girsu Par Urlumma Roi d’Umma", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 59, no. 2, pp. 81–84, 1965
  • T. Maeda, "Ruler’s Family of Umma and Control over the Circulation of Silver", ASJ 18, pp. 254-260, 1996
  • Molina, Manuel, "Court Officials at Umma in Ur III Times", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 103, no. 2, pp. 125-148, 2013
  • Notizia, P. and Visicato, G., "Early Dynastic and Early Sargonic Administrative Texts Mainly from the Umma Region in the Cornell University Cuneiform Collections", CUSAS 33. Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2016
  • F. Pomponio, "Lukalla of Umma", ZA 82, pp. 169–179, 1992
  • Rost, Stephanie, and Angelo Di Michele, "Systematic Versus Random Sampling in Approaches to Landscape Archaeology: The Umma Survey Project in Southern Mesopotamia", Journal of Field Archaeology 47.5, pp. 285-304, 2022
  • [6]Stephanie Rost, "Written Sources in the Empirical Investigation of Ancient Irrigation: The Operation of the I-sala Irrigation System in the Umma Province in Late Third-Millennium BCE Southern Mesopotamia", in Irrigation in Early States: New Directions, Oriental Institute Seminars 13, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, pp. 137-174, 2022 ISBN:978-1-61491-071-8
  • Shin T. Kang, "Sumerian economic texts from the Umma archive", University of Illinois Press, 1973 ISBN:0-252-00425-6
  • Tonia M. Sharlach, "Provincial taxation and the Ur III State", Brill, 2003 ISBN:90-04-13581-2
  • Steinkeller, Piotr, "An Estimate of the Population of the City of Umma in Ur III Times", At the Dawn of History: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of J. N. Postgate, edited by Yağmur Heffron, Adam Stone and Martin Worthington, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 535-566, 2017
  • van Driel, G., "The Size of Institutional Umma", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 46/47, pp. 80–91, 1999

External links



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=History:Umma&oldid=3233479"