Medicine:Castration

From HandWiki
Short description: Surgical or chemical action that removes use of testicles
A 15th century Persian medical illustration by Sharaf ad-Din depicting an operation for castration

Castration is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses use of the testicles: the male gonad. Surgical castration is bilateral orchiectomy (excision of both testicles), while chemical castration uses pharmaceutical drugs to deactivate the testes. Castration causes sterilization (preventing the castrated person or animal from reproducing); it also greatly reduces the production of hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Surgical castration in animals is often called neutering.

Castration of animals is intended to favor a desired development of the animal or of its habits, as an anaphrodisiac or to prevent overpopulation. The parallel of castration for female animals is spaying.

The term castration may also be sometimes used to refer to emasculation where both the testicles and the penis are removed together. In some cultures, and in some translations, no distinction is made between the two.

History

The Castration of Uranus: fresco by Vasari & Cristofano Gherardi (c. 1560, Sala di Cosimo I, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence)

Castration may have arisen in the Neolithic period in response to animal husbandry, rising populations and population specialisation.[1]

Either surgical removal of both testicles or chemical castration may be carried out in the case of prostate cancer.[2] Testosterone-depletion treatment (either surgical removal of both testicles or chemical castration) is used to slow down the cancer. Surgical removal of one or both testicles known as orchidectomy is the most common treatment for testicular cancer.[3]

Castration has also been used in the United States for sex offenders as a way of avoiding incarceration.[4] It can greatly reduce sex drive or interest in those with sexual drives, obsessions, or behaviors, or any combination of those that may be considered deviant.

Involuntary castration appears in the history of warfare, sometimes used by one side to torture or demoralize their enemies.[5] It was practiced to extinguish opposing male lineages and thus allow the victor to sexually possess the defeated group's women.[2]

Africa and the Middle East

Chief Eunuch of Abdul Hamid II (1912)

Over the 13 centuries of the Arab slave trade in Africa, unknown numbers of Africans were enslaved and shipped to the Middle East.

"The Caliphate in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace."[6] The Arab slave trade typically dealt in the sale of castrated male slaves. Black boys at the age of eight to twelve had their scrotum and penis completely amputated. Reportedly, about two of three boys died, but those who survived drew high prices.[7]

Europe

Slavery

The employment or enslavement of eunuchs (castrated men) was practiced in classical and Roman antiquity and continued into the Middle Ages. In the 10th century, slave traders in Verdun in France and in Becâne (Pechina), Spain, castrated captives who were then enslaved as harem attendants in Al-Andalus.[8]

Punishment

Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire reports castration of defeated Byzantine Greeks at the hands of the Frankish marquis Theobald of Camerino and Spoleto in the course of 10th-century wars in Italy.[9] Gibbon also alludes to a 12th-century incident set out in William Fitzstephen's Vita Sancti Thomae (Life of St. Thomas) in which Geoffrey of Anjou castrated the members of the cathedral chapter of Sens as a punishment for disobedience.[10][11] In the medieval kingdom of Georgia, the 12th-century pretender Demna was castrated by his uncle George III of Georgia to ensure the supremacy of George's branch of the family.[12] Another victim of castration was the 12th-century medieval French philosopher, scholar, teacher, and (later) monk Pierre Abélard. He was castrated by relatives of his lover, Héloïse.[13] Bishop Wimund, a 12th-century English adventurer and invader of the Scottish coast, was blinded and castrated after losing a power struggle.[14] In medieval England, men found guilty of high treason were hanged, drawn and quartered, which often included emasculation (removal of the genitalia).[15]

The procedure of castration as punishment during the 16th century

Modern era

Wim Deetman was criticized by the Dutch parliament for excluding evidence of castration[16] in his report on sexual abuse by the Roman Catholic Church, where ten children were allegedly "punished" by castration in the 1950s for reporting sexual abuse by Roman Catholic priests. The Deetman Commission had rejected it as the person who reported the incident admitted it was speculative.

In Spain, a law against castration was used to deny sex-reassignment surgery to transgender people until the Penal Code was reformed in 1983.[17]

China

According to legend, during the reign of the legendary Emperor Shun and Yu in China, in 2281 BC, castration was passed into law as a punishment, remaining so until the reign of Gaozu of Tang (589–600 AD). However, it was still practiced after his reign.[18] According to historians, it was incorporated into Chinese law during the Zhou dynasty.[19] It was one of the five physical punishments that could be legally inflicted on criminals in China.[20]

Records of castrations in China date to the Shang dynasty (c. 1700–1050 BC), when the Shang kings castrated prisoners of war.[21][22]

During the reign of Mu of the Zhou dynasty (10th c. BC) the Minister of Crime, Marquis Lu, reformed the law in 950 BC to make it easier for people to be sentenced to castration instead of death.[23] As long as the practice existed in China, not only were the testicles removed but castration included the severing of one's entire genitalia. Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time.[24]

Men were castrated and made into state slaves during the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to perform forced labor for projects such as the Terracotta Army.[25] The Qin government confiscated the property and enslaved the families of rapists who received castration as a punishment.[26] Men punished with castration during the Han dynasty were also used as slave labor.[27]

In the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), castration continued to be used as a punishment for various offences.[28][29] Chinese historian Sima Qian was castrated by order of the Han Emperor of China for dissent.[30] In another incident multiple people, including a chief scribe and his underlings, were subjected to castration.[31]

During the early part of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD), China demanded eunuchs to be sent as tribute from Korea. Some of them oversaw the Korean concubines in the harem of the Chinese Emperor.[32][33]

When the Chinese overthrew Mongol rule, many Mongol captives were castrated and turned into eunuchs.[34] When the Ming army finally captured Yunnan from Mongols in 1382, thousands of prisoners were killed and, according to the custom in times of war, their young sons—including Zheng He—were castrated.[35][36]

During the Miao Rebellions (Ming dynasty), Chinese commanders castrated thousands of Miao boys when their tribes revolted, and then distributed them as eunuch slaves as gifts to various officials.[36]

At the end of the Ming dynasty, there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huànguān, or 太監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor, with some serving inside the Forbidden City.

The last imperial eunuch in China was Sun Yaoting who died in 1996.

Non-Han peoples in China

The Khitan people adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese and the eunuchs used were non-Khitan prisoners of war. The Khitan were a nomadic Mongolic people and originally did not have eunuchs as part of their culture.[37] When the Khitan founded the Liao dynasty they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. All of the eunuchs captured were ethnic Chinese from the Central Plains that came from two sources. The Khitan captured Chinese people who were already eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Chinese Song dynasty: the Khitan would raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao dynasty harem. The Empress Dowager Xiao Chuo (Chengtian) played a large role in the raids to capture and emasculate the boys.[38]

Chengtian took power at age 30 in 982 as a regent for her son. Some reports suggest that she personally led her own army against the Song Chinese in 986. Her army defeated them in battle,[39] fighting the retreating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration of around 100 ethnic Chinese boys she had captured in China, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en. The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks.[40][41]

The History of Liao 遼史 described and praised Empress Chengtian's capture and mass castration of the Chinese boys in a biography on Wang Ji'en.[42]

Some legends say that the Mongol Genghis Khan was castrated by a Tangut princess using a knife, who wanted revenge against his treatment of the Tanguts and to stop him from raping her.[43]

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911 AD), the sons and grandsons of the rebel Yaqub Beg in China were all sentenced to castration. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his four sons, four grandchildren (two grandsons and two granddaughters), and four wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu, or were killed by the Chinese. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors in 1879. They were all underage children, and put on trial, sentenced to an agonizing death if they were complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition", or if they were innocent of their fathers crimes, were to be sentenced to castration and serving as eunuch slaves to Chinese troops, when they reached 11 years old, and handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated.[44][45][46] Although some sources assert that the sentence of castration was carried out, official sources from the US State Department and activists involved in the incident state that Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons had their sentence commuted to life imprisonment with a fund provided for their support.[47][48][49]

Korea

The eunuchs of Korea, called Naesi (내시, 內侍), were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon dynasty, the Naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi" (내시부, 內侍府).[50]


According to legend, castration consisted of daubing a boy's genitals with human feces and having a dog bite them off.[51] During the Yuan dynasty, eunuchs became a desirable commodity for tributes, and dog bites were replaced by more sophisticated surgical techniques.[52]

Vietnam

The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China. Records show that the Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off.[53] The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied, and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into the urethra to allow urination during healing.[54] Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self-castration in order to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases, they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations.[55]

Lý Thường Kiệt was a prominent eunuch general during the Lý dynasty (1009–1225).

The Trần dynasty sent Vietnamese boy eunuchs as tribute to Ming dynasty China several times, in 1383, 1384 and 1385[56] Nguyen Dao, Nguyen Toan, Tru Ca, and Ngo Tin were among several Vietnamese eunuchs sent to China.[57]

During the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam, the Ming Chinese under the Yongle Emperor castrated many young Vietnamese boys, choosing them for their handsomeness and ability, and brought them to Nanjing to serve as eunuchs. Among them were the architect-engineer Nguyễn An[58] and Nguyen Lang (阮浪).[59] Vietnamese were among the many eunuchs of different origins found at Yongle's court.[60] Among the eunuchs in charge of the Capital Battalions of Beijing was Xing An, a Vietnamese.[61]

In the Lê dynasty the Vietnamese Emperor Lê Thánh Tông was aggressive in his relations with foreign countries including China. A large amount of trade between Guangdong and Vietnam happened during his reign. Early accounts recorded that the Vietnamese captured Chinese whose ships had blown off course and detained them. Young Chinese men were selected by the Vietnamese for castration to become eunuch slaves to the Vietnamese. It has been speculated by modern historians that the Chinese who were captured and castrated by the Vietnamese were involved in trade between China and Vietnam instead of actually being blown off course by the wind and they were punished as part of a crackdown on foreign trade by Vietnam.[62]

Several Malay envoys from the Malacca sultanate were attacked and captured in 1469 by the Lê dynasty of Annam (Vietnam) as they were returning to Malacca from China. The Vietnamese enslaved and castrated the young from among the captured.[56][63][64]

A 1472 entry in the Ming Shilu reported that when some Chinese from Nanhai county escaped back to China after their ship had been blown off course into Vietnam, where they had been forced to serve as soldiers in Vietnam's military. The escapees also reported that they found out up to 100 Chinese men remained captives in Vietnam after they were caught and castrated by the Vietnamese after their ships were blown off course into Vietnam. The Chinese Ministry of Revenue responded by ordering Chinese civilians and soldiers to stop going abroad to foreign countries.[65][66][67][68] China's relations with Vietnam during this period were marked by the punishment of prisoners by castration.[69][70]

A 1499 entry in the Ming Shilu recorded that 13 Chinese men from Wenchang including a young man named Wu Rui were captured by the Vietnamese after their ship was blown off course while traveling from Hainan to Guangdong's Qin subprefecture (Qinzhou), after which they ended up near the coast of Vietnam, during the Chenghua Emperor's rule (1447–1487). Twelve of them were enslaved to work as agricultural laborers, while the youngest, Wu Rui (吳瑞) was selected for castration since he was the only young man and he became a eunuch attendant at the Vietnamese imperial palace in Thang Long. After years of service, he was promoted at the death of the Vietnamese ruler in 1497 to a military position in northern Vietnam. A soldier told him of an escape route back to China and Wu Rui escaped to Longzhou. The local chief planned to sell him back to the Vietnamese, but Wu was rescued by the Pingxiang magistrate and then was sent to Beijing to work as a eunuch in the palace.[71]

The Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư records that in 1467 in An Bang province of Dai Viet (now Quảng Ninh Province) a Chinese ship blew off course onto the shore. The Chinese were detained and not allowed to return to China as ordered by Le Thanh Tong.[72] This incident may be the same one where Wu Rui was captured.[73]

In the Nguyễn dynasty the poet Hồ Xuân Hương mocked eunuchs in her poem as a stand-in for criticizing the government.[74]

Commoners were banned from undergoing castration in Vietnam; only adult men of high social rank could be castrated. Most eunuchs were born as such with a congenital abnormality. The Vietnamese government mandated that boys born with defective genitalia were to be reported to officials, in exchange for the town being freed from mandatory labor requirements. The boy would have the option of serving as a eunuch official or serving the palace women when he became ten years old.[75] This law was put in place in 1838 during the Nguyễn dynasty.[76] The only males allowed inside the Forbidden City at Huế were the Emperor and his eunuchs.[77]

The presence of eunuchs in Vietnam was used by the French colonizers to degrade the Vietnamese.[78]

Americas

In 1778, Thomas Jefferson wrote a bill in Virginia reducing the punishment for rape, polygamy, or sodomy from death to castration.[79] Over the years, several U.S. states have passed laws regarding chemical castration for sex offenders but not one state has mandatory castration. In 2016, Alabama lawmaker Steve Hurst proposed a bill requiring certain sex offenses to require the perpetrator be castrated prior to their release from state custody.[80]

A 1969 study found that men institutionalized at the same facility in Kansas lived an extra 14 years, on average, if they were castrated.[81]

In 1983, Judge C. Victor Pyle sentenced three men convicted of rape to choose between 30 years in prison or castration.[82] The South Carolina Supreme Court ruled that the castration option would be cruel, however, and the men were sentenced to prison.[83][84]

India

Sunni Afghan Pashtun Sur Empire

The Sunni Muslim Afghan Pashtun Sultan of the Sur Empire, Sher Shah Suri defeated the Indian Hindu Rajputs under Puran Mal. The Afghan Pashtun Sunnis who had war elephants slaughtered the Indian Rajput Hindus including Puran Mal. The surviving Indian Rajput Hindu women and children were enslaved, among them were 3 of Puran Mal's nephews or sons who were castrated and became eunuchs so that their family line would not continue while Puran Mal's daughter was enslaved as a dancing girl as were other Hindu girls who were captured.[85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124][125]

Twelver Shia Turkic ruled Oudh state

The Turkic and Iranian Persian Twelver Shia Muslim royal family ruling the Oudh (Awadh) state in India obtained their eunuchs (khwajasarais) through crushing Hindu rebellions by their Indian Hindu subjects that they ruled, massacring Hindu men and enslaving the Hindu women and children with the South Asian Indian Hindu boys being castrated and sent into the harems for service as eunuchs. Jawahir Ali was a eunuch of Oudh state who was born a Hindu. The rulers of Oudh (Awadh) state were Twelver Shia while Rajput Hindus made up most of the local cultivator landholding rajas. The Hindu Rajas of Khairabad rebelled since they refused to pay taxes to the Twelver Shia district administrator Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan so Nawab Muhammad Ali defeated the Hindus in battle and the Muslim historian Muhammad Faiz Bakhsh recorded in his book Tarikh Farahbakhsh that Muhammad Ali sent "hundreds of unbelievers (Hindus) to hell", enslaving their children and women and castrated the Hindu boys among the children. Adult Hindu women, Hindu girls, and Hindu boys like Jawahir Ali were enslaved by their Twelver Shia ruler. One Hindu boy died from being castrated but the rest of the Hindu boys including Jawahir Ali survived the castration and entered Muhammad Ali's service as eunuchs. The castrated Hindu boys were converted to Twelver Shia Islam and given Muslim names after being enslaved and then educated. The Twelver Shia Turkic Nawab of Oudh Shuja-ud-Daula (a descendant of the Turkic Twelver Shia Qara Qoyunlu dynasty through his father Safdar Jang) made Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan give his eunuchs including Jawahir Ali to him.[126][127] Jawahir Ali (Joahir Ali) served as nazir eunuch to Bahu Begum (Bahu Begam, Bahoo Begum or Buhoo Begum) (Begum Amanat-uz Zahra Bano), the Iranian Persian wife of the Turkic Twelver Shia ruler of Oudh, Shuja-ud-Daula.[128] Bahu Begum owned multiple eunuchs, all of them of Indian Hindu background. One of them was born a eunuch with defective genital and sold to the Nawab by his family, Darab Ali Khan and he was a general agent of Bahu Begam after Jawahir Ali. Another was a Brahmin Hindu boy who was kidnaped by castrators, enslaved and castrated when he was 14 after his famine stricken parents sold him to a woman of Sayyid background and he was the treasurer of Bahu Begam, Bahar Ali.[129] Jawahir Ali was the first general agent of Bahu Begam.[130]

Yusuf Ali Khan and Ambar Ali Khan were 2 other eunuch boys who were raised with Jawahir Ali Khan.[131] Ambar Ali Khan was taken prisoner in the same battle as Jawahir Ali Khan when the Twelver Shia Commissioner Muhammad Ali Khan defeated the Hindu Rajputs of Khairabad (Sitapur) and castrated the Hindu boys.[132] Jawahir Ali Khan used white clothing for Mewatis, black clothing for irregulars and livery in mango green for household troops (Sahib Khanis) when he ordered his servants and soldiers to parade in Lucknow while he was administrator.[133] Jawahir Ali patronized intellectuals and culture as well as engaging in horsemanship and archery practice every day. He did not wear ornate, expensive or elaborate clothing and did not do extravagant grooming, since as a high ranking eunuch (khwajasarai) his mistress did not need to flaunt her wealth through him.[134] Jawahir Ali Khan cone had 1,000 servants shout "Din, Din" while raising banners and wearing white robes after taking off their black robes. One of his officials was Akhund Ahmad. Jawahir Ali had a dispute with his mistress Bahu Begum when he was blocking a road once and she sent a eunuch to tell him to stop it.[135]

Prevention of crime

Voluntary or mandated preventative chemical or surgical castration has been in practice in many countries—reports are available from American and European countries in particular for over eighty years (chemical for circa thirty)—as an option for treatment for people who have broken laws of a sexual nature, allowing them to return to the community from otherwise lengthy detentions.[136] The effectiveness and ethics of this treatment are heavily debated.

A temporary "chemical castration" has been studied and developed as a preventive measure and punishment for several repeated sex crimes, such as rape or other sexually related violence.[137][138] This has also been used to treat homosexuality, such as the chemical castration ordered against Alan Turing.[139]

In modern times, the Czech Republic practices surgical castration of convicted sex offenders. According to the reports compiled by Council of Europe, a human-rights forum, the central European country physically castrated at least 94 prisoners in the 10 years up to April 2008. The Czech Republic defends this procedure as voluntary and effective.[140] According to Dr. Martin Hollý, director of the Psychiatric Hospital Bohnice in Prague, none of the nearly 100 sex offenders who had been physically castrated had committed further offences.[141] One serial offender stated that being castrated was the "best decision" he ever made: "On the one hand you have to protect the potential victims and on the other hand I wanted to be protected from myself, I wanted to live like a normal person."[142] Don Grubin, a professor at Newcastle University's Institute of Neuroscience who also runs a chemical castration program backed by the UK's Ministry of Justice, was initially opposed to physical castration. After visiting the Czech Republic, however, he agreed that some form of castration might be of benefit to some sex offenders.[142][143]

In 2020, the Pakistan i-controlled section of Kashmir passed a bill allowing for convicted child sex abusers to be chemically or surgically castrated.[144]

In 2020, a motion calling for surgical castration of convicted rapists was defeated in the Nigerian House of Representatives.[145] However, there remains support for the policy.[146][147]

Criticism

Some criminologists argue that the reported lower recidivism rates in castrated male sex offenders compared to non-castrated ones does not conclusively prove that it is a biological effect of castration, but might be explained by other factors. One suggested factor from game theory is that men who are willing to accept castration to get a shorter prison sentence are those who value freedom from prison higher than men who are not willing to pay the price for freedom in the form of their testicles. This hypothesis could explain their apparent lower recidivism as a result of working harder to conceal the evidence for their crimes, and argue that their parole is a danger of releasing offenders who only hide their crimes more efficiently and are not any less likely to commit new crimes. These criminologists also argue that police investigators treating castrated men as less likely to reoffend than non-castrated men may cause an investigation bias and self-fulfilling prophecy.[148][149]

Torture and war crimes

An Italian soldier who was castrated during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.

Castration and other forms of male genital mutilation have been practiced against enemy soldiers and civilians from ancient times to the twenty-first century.[150] Sometimes it is practiced against living boys and men and other times against corpses.[150]

The castration of defeated enemies and the taking of body parts as trophies were traditional in Ethiopia,[151] and Ethiopian forces practiced castration and emasculation during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1937).[152][153] Italian aviator Tito Minniti was allegedly one victim of this practice.[154]

One British RAF officer, G. C. Gardiner DSO DFC, is recorded as having been castrated after a crash landing in Syria.[155] During the Mau Mau uprising, there were reported instances of British security forces castrating Kenyan detainees in internment camps.[150]

A video released during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine appeared to show Russian soldiers castrating a Ukrainian captive with a box cutter. This led to a wave of international condemnation against the Russian military for its use of torture in wartime.[156] Many other cases of Russian troops castrating Ukrainian prisoners of war have also emerged.[157][158][159][160] When Ukrainian cities were liberated, horrendous abuses by Russian forces were exposed, including castrations, in attempts to terrorize and demoralize the Ukrainian population to break their will to fight.[161]

Music

In Europe, when women were not permitted to sing in church or cathedral choirs in the Roman Catholic Church, boys were castrated to develop a special high voice and to prevent their voices breaking at puberty. The first documents mentioning castrati are Italian church records from the 1550s.[162] In the baroque and classical music eras these singers were highly appreciated by opera composers as well. Mozart's Exultate Jubilate, Allegri's Miserere and other pieces from this period now sung by sopranos and countertenors were written for castrati. Some of the alto parts of Handel's Messiah were first sung by a castrato. Castrati include Farinelli, Senesino, Carestini, and Caffarelli. The last true castrato was Alessandro Moreschi (1858–1922) who served in the Sistine Chapel Choir.[163] It was not until the late 19th century that the Roman Catholic Church officially condemned the production of castrati. In modern times, the Mexican Javier Medina is the only professional opera singer who can perform as a castrato, since he had an involuntary chemical castration, as a result of a cancer treatment that he had before he reached puberty.[164]

Religion

Hinduism

In South Asia, many hijras live in well-defined, organized, all-hijra communities, led by a guru. The power of the hijras as a sexually ambiguous category can only be understood in the religious context of Hinduism. In some Hindu beliefs, ritual, and art, the power of the combined man/woman, or androgyne, is a frequent and significant theme. Bahuchara Mata, the main object of hijra veneration, is specifically associated with transvestism and transgenderism.[165]

Christianity

In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus of Nazareth mentions castration in a discussion about avoiding adultery and divorce that some are involuntarily castrated or born that way, while some others "make themselves eunuchs" willingly out of a desire to be chaste (Matthew 19:1–12). Given Jesus' frequent use of metaphor and hyperbole, e.g. Luke 9:62, the Catholic Church has broadly discouraged any understanding of this passage as recommending literal "self-castration". That is consistent with Jesus' claims (as a rabbi) to uphold the Law given to Moses, e.g. Matthew 5:17, a Law which also discouraged literal castration Deut 23:1. However, in his own comments Jesus had no condemnation for any of the above. In Acts 8:34–8:39, a eunuch is baptized by Philip the Evangelist, demonstrating acceptance of castrated individuals in his church.

The first canon of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD forbade clergy members to voluntarily castrate themselves "when in perfect health", but freely accepted those who had been either castrated by others against their will, castrated due to a medical sickness or necessity, or those born as eunuchs.

Paul, arguing against self-righteousness regarding circumcision in Galatians 5:12, says "As for those agitators, I wish they would go the whole way and emasculate themselves!" (NIV)

Well-known Christian eunuchs (or alleged eunuchs) include:

  • Origen, who is reported by Eusebius[166] to have castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 and other passages in Matthew and Mark that appear to endorse voluntary amputation to avoid sin, although there is some doubt concerning this story. Schaff considers the account genuine but cites Baur et al. in opposition.[167] Origen argues against such literal interpretations of the passages from Matthew and Mark in his First Principles.
  • Bishop Melito of Sardis (d. ca 180), who was a eunuch, according to the church history of Eusebius of Caesarea, though, significantly the word "virgin" was substituted in Rufinus' Latin translation of Eusebius.
  • Boston Corbett, who was inspired by this same verse 19:12 to castrate himself (Corbett was the 19th-century American soldier who is generally believed to have fired the shot that killed John Wilkes Booth).
  • Skoptsy, a branch of the Russian Spiritual Christianity movement founded in the 1760s.

Judaism

Judaism strictly forbids the castration of either humans or animals.[168] Deuteronomy 23:1 expels castrated men from the assembly of Israel; they are forbidden to marry or if married must divorce from their wives (though permitting the castrated to marry or remain married to female converts to Judaism). The laws of castration also apply to cases of irreversible or un-reversed vasectomy and all other cases where the flow of sperm is known to have been placed into a permanent state of dysfunction with either no hope or no desire to take the steps to repair.[169]

Isaiah 56:3–5 references in a positive welcoming manner eunuchs who follow after God's laws. "Neither let the son of the stranger, that hath joined himself to the LORD, speak, saying, The LORD hath utterly separated me from his people: neither let the eunuch say, Behold, I am a dry tree. For thus saith the LORD unto the eunuchs that keep my sabbaths, and choose the things that please me, and take hold of my covenant; Even unto them will I give in mine house and within my walls a place and a name better than of sons and of daughters: I will give them an everlasting name, that shall not be cut off."

According to Rashi, Kham (Ham) castrated his father Noah and was cursed as a result.

In Judaism, castrated animals are deemed unfit for sacrifice in the Temple in Jerusalem (Lev 22:24). Castrated members of the priestly caste are forbidden to enter certain parts of the temple, to approach the altar, or to make sacrifices, although they could eat their share of the offerings and receive the priestly and Levite gifts (Lev. 21:16–24).

Islam

The Muslim conquest of Persia as well as later conquests in the Byzantine Empire and India brought them into contact with eunuchs. By the eighth century, the palaces of the caliphs were staffed with many eunuch slaves which sold at a premium. A regular trade in eunuchs developed with slaves being taken to locations in Spain or Africa to be castrated, as the practice of castration was forbidden for Muslims. Eunuchs were used as harem supervisors, as mediators or servile roles, but they could also rise to be trusted advisors or military commanders.[170]:75

In Islam, castration is considered a sin and strictly forbidden, whether one performs it on oneself or on another.[171] In the history of slavery in the muslim world, a fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuch. Levy states that according to the Quran and Islamic traditions, such emasculation was objectionable. Some jurists such as al-Baydawi considered castration to be mutilation, stipulating laws to prevent it. However, in practice, emasculation was frequent.[172] In eighteenth-century Mecca, the majority of eunuchs were in the service of the mosques.[173]

Medical consequences

A subject of castration who is altered before the onset of puberty will retain a high voice, as well as the effects of hypogonadims, which include non-muscular build, an infantile penis, a lack of a beard, more developed subcutaneuos fat. He may be taller than average, with long limbs, so called "eunuchoid appearance", as the production of sex hormones in puberty—more specifically, estrogen via aromatization of testosterone—stops long bone growth in a process called osseous maturation. The subject may lack the male distribution of axillary hair, an may develop pubic hair distributed in female pattern. They may have a low sex drive or none at all.[174]

Castration stops the progression of male pattern baldness. However, hair regrowth – if it occurs at all – may be limited to hair that was lost shortly before castration.[175]

Historically, many eunuchs who additionally underwent a penectomy reportedly had urinary incontinence associated with the removal of the penis.[176]

A study of 81 historical eunuchs in Korea's royal court found a 14- to 19-year increase in lifespan compared to intact men of similar socioeconomic background; these eunuchs had a centenarian rate of over 3%.[177]

Chemical castration

In the case of chemical castration, ongoing regular injections of anti-androgens are required. Chemical castration does not actually remove the testicles or ovaries of the subject,[178] nor is it a form of sterilization.[179]

With the advent of chemical castration, physical castration in humans has been widely superseded,[180] though some have undergone the procedure voluntarily.[181]

Animals

A mule being castrated

Humans commonly castrate domestic animals not intended for breeding. Domestic animals are usually castrated to avoid unwanted or uncontrolled reproduction; to reduce or prevent other manifestations of sexual behaviour such as defending the herd from humans and other threats, or intra-herd aggression (e.g. fighting between groups of entire (uncastrated) males of a species); or to reduce other consequences of sexual behavior that may make animal husbandry more difficult, such as boundary/fence/enclosure destruction when attempting to get to nearby females of the species.

Male horses are usually castrated (gelded) using emasculators, because stallions are rather aggressive and troublesome. The same applies to male mules, although they are sterile. Male cattle are castrated to improve fattening and docility in feedlots or for use as oxen. Breeding individuals are kept entire and used for breeding: they may fetch higher prices when sold.

Livestock may be castrated when used for food to prevent indiscriminate breeding, control aggression, and improve meat and carcass quality.[182] In domestic pigs the undesirable odour or taint of uncastrated males, called boar taint, is caused by androstenone and skatole concentrations stored in the fat tissues of the animal after sexual maturity.[183] Boar taint is only found in a small minority of pigs and can be controlled through breeding selection, diet and management.[184] It is released when the fat is heated and has a distinct odor and flavor that is widely considered unpalatable to consumers.[185] Consequently, in commercial meat production, male pigs are either castrated shortly after birth or slaughtered before they reach sexual maturity.[185] Recent research in Brazil has shown that castration of pigs is unnecessary because most pigs do not have the 'boar taint'. This is due to many breeds of pigs simply not having the heredity for the boar taint and the fact that pigs are normally slaughtered at a young market weight.[186]

In the case of pets, castration is usually called neutering, and is encouraged to prevent overpopulation of the community by unwanted animals, and to reduce certain diseases such as prostate disease and testicular cancer in male dogs (oophorectomy in female pets is often called spaying). Testicular cancer is rare in dogs, and also prostate problems are somewhat common in castrated male dogs when they get older.[187] Neutered individuals have a much higher risk of developing prostate problems in comparison to intact males. Castrated male cats are more likely to develop an obstruction in their urethra, preventing them from urinating to some degree.[188] A specialized vocabulary has arisen for neutered animals of given species:

  • Barrow (pig)
  • Bullock (cattle)
  • Capon (chicken)
  • Gelding (horse)
  • Gib (cat, ferret)
  • Ox (cattle) (Castration performed on mature bull)
  • Stag (cattle, sheep)
  • Steer (cattle) (Castration performed on young calf)
  • Wether (sheep, goat)

An incompletely castrated male in livestock species (horse and cattle) is known as a rig.

The term stag is used for a male animal castrated after the secondary sex characteristics have developed to such a point as to give him the appearance of sexual maturity.

Rubber rings and pliers used in elastration

Methods of veterinary castration include instant surgical removal, the use of an elastrator tool to secure a band around the testicles that disrupts the blood supply, the use of a Burdizzo tool or emasculators to crush the spermatic cords and disrupt the blood supply, pharmacological injections and implants and immunological techniques to inoculate the animal against his own sexual hormones.

Certain animals, like horses and swine, are usually surgically treated with a scrotal castration (which can be done with the animal standing while sedated and after local anesthetic has been applied), while others, like dogs and cats, are anesthetised and recumbent when surgically castrated with a pre-scrotal incision in the case of dogs, or a pre-scrotal or scrotal incision used for cats.

Castration of cattle has historically been done without pain medications. All methods of castration cause pain and distress, which can be minimized by castrating as early as possible, preferably within the first week of life. The Canadian Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Beef Cattle requires that, as of 2018, calves older than six months be castrated using pain control.[189]

In veterinary practice an "open" castration refers to a castration in which the inguinal tunic is incised and not sutured. A "closed" castration refers to when the procedure is performed so that the inguinal tunic is sutured together after incision.

See also

  • Ashley Treatment
  • Birth control
  • Castration anxiety
  • Castrato, a castrated male singer
  • Chemical castration
  • Cleveland Torso Murderer, a serial killer who castrated his male victims
  • Emasculation
  • Emasculator
  • Eunuch
  • Gelding
  • Inguinal orchiectomy, the approach typically used to treat testicular cancer
  • Spaying and neutering (for animals)
  • Oophorectomy, the equivalent operation for ovaries
  • Parasitic castration
  • Penectomy
  • Penis removal
  • Vasectomy


References

  1. ↑ Reusch, Kathryn (2013). That Which Was Missing: The Archaeology of Castration (PhD). University of Oxford.
  2. ↑ "MaleCare.com". 23 February 2011. http://www.malecare.com. 
  3. ↑ "Testicular cancer - Treatment" (in en). 2018-03-02. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/testicular-cancer/treatment/. 
  4. ↑ "Some Sex Offenders Opt for Castration". ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=93947. 
  5. ↑ Eichert, David (2019). "'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence". International Feminist Journal of Politics 21 (3): 409–433. doi:10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264. 
  6. ↑ Segal, Ronald (9 February 2002). Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0374527976. https://archive.org/details/islamsblackslave00sega. 
  7. ↑ Wilson, Jean D.; Roehrborn, Claus (1999). "Long-Term Consequences of Castration in Men: Lessons from the Skoptzy and the Eunuchs of the Chinese and Ottoman Courts". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 84 (12): 4324–4331. doi:10.1210/jcem.84.12.6206. PMID 10599682. 
  8. ↑ Gök, H. İbrahim (2013). "The Slave Trade and its Routes in the Mediterranean Region". Studia et Documenta Turcologica (Romania: Cluj-Napoca : Presa Universitară Clujeană) (1): 175–178. ISSN 2344-6560. http://docplayer.net/83507535-Studia-et-documenta-turcologica.html. Retrieved 31 January 2020. 
  9. ↑ Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 56". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Project Gutenberg. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Elink562HCH0002. Retrieved 27 April 2020. 
  10. ↑ Gibbon, Edward. "Chapter 59". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/25717/25717-h/25717-h.htm#Flink692HCH0001. Retrieved 27 April 2020. 
  11. ↑ Gourde, Leo T. (1943). "An Annotated Translation of the Life of St. Thomas Becket by William Fitzstephen". Master's Theses (Loyola University Chicago) 622: 100. https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_theses/622. Retrieved 27 April 2020. 
  12. ↑ Eastmond, Antony (1998). Royal imagery in medieval Georgia. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 107. ISBN 0271016280. https://books.google.com/books?id=2KPdSQU-Bx4C&pg=PA107. 
  13. ↑ Russell, Bertrand (1945). The History of Western Philosophy. Simon & Schuster. p. 436. https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern00russ. 
  14. ↑ Newburgh (of), William (1920). "24" (in la). Selections from the "Historia rerum anglicarum" of William of Newburgh, by Charles Johnson, M. A.. SPCK. p. 21. https://openlibrary.org/works/OL4923649W/Selections_from_the_Historia_rerum_anglicarum_of_William_of_Newburgh_by_Charles_Johnson_M._A. Retrieved 31 January 2020. 
  15. ↑ Bellamy, John (1979). The Tudor Law of Treason. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 202–204. ISBN 978-0-7100-8729-4. 
  16. ↑ "Time for the truth about Catholic sex abuse in the Netherlands". RNW. http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/time-truth-about-catholic-sex-abuse-netherlands. 
  17. ↑ Missé, Miquel (2013). Transexualidades: Otras Miradas Posibles. Barcelona: Editorial EGALES. pp. 37. ISBN 978-84-15899-13-6. 
  18. ↑ Ernst Faber (1902). Chronological handbook of the history of China: a manuscript left by the late Rev. Ernst Faber. Pub. by the General Evangelical Protestant missionary society of Germany. p. 3. https://archive.org/details/chronologicalha00fabegoog. Retrieved 11 January 2011. "the five punishments are adopted branding cutting off the nose feet castration and death emperor wen kao tsu." 
  19. ↑ Faber, Ernst (1897). China in the light of history. American Presbyterian mission press. p. 18. https://archive.org/details/chinainlighthis00fabegoog. Retrieved 11 January 2011. "china chow dynasty 1100 imperial castration was one of the five legal corporal punishments." 
  20. ↑ Lalor, John Joseph (1882). Cyclopaedia of political science, political economy, and of the political history of the United States, Volume 1. Rand, McNally. p. 406. ISBN 9780598866110. https://books.google.com/books?id=5phBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406. 
  21. ↑ Gwyn Campbell; Suzanne Miers; Joseph Calder Miller (2009). Children in slavery through the ages. Ohio University Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8214-1877-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=S3Y2PTI_vYYC&pg=PA136. 
  22. ↑ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty. SUNY Press. p. 11. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA11. 
  23. ↑ Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner (1919). China of the Chinese. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 146. https://archive.org/details/chinachineseill01werngoog. "castration capital avoid." 
  24. ↑ Gwyn Campbell; Suzanne Miers; Joseph Calder Miller (2009). Children in slavery through the ages. Ohio University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-8214-1877-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=S3Y2PTI_vYYC. 
  25. ↑ Qin Shihuang. Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege. 2001. p. 273. ISBN 3-87490-711-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=V6U2AQAAIAAJ. 
  26. ↑ Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The early Chinese empires: Qin and Han. Harvard University Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=EHKxM31e408C&pg=PA252. 
  27. ↑ History of Science Society (1952). Osiris, Volume 10. Saint Catherine Press. p. 144. https://books.google.com/books?id=8IktAAAAIAAJ. 
  28. ↑ The History of China. Britannica Educational Publishing, The Rosen Publishing Group. 2010. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-61530-181-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=A1nwvKNPMWkC&pg=PA75. 
  29. ↑ Qian Ma (2005). Women in traditional Chinese theater: the heroine's play. University Press of America. p. 149. ISBN 0-7618-3217-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=NhkRAAAAYAAJ&q=castration. 
  30. ↑ Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner (1919). China of the Chinese. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 152. https://archive.org/details/chinachineseill01werngoog. "castration inflicted li ling." 
  31. ↑ Ch'ien Ssu-Ma (2008). The Grand Scribe's Records: The Memoirs of Han China, Part 1. Indiana University Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-253-34028-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=aLbsTKaO6v0C&pg=PA231. 
  32. ↑ Frederick W. Mote; Denis Twitchett; John King Fairbank (1988). The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 976. ISBN 0-521-24332-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=tyhT9SZRLS8C&pg=PA301. 
  33. ↑ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty. SUNY Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA14. 
  34. ↑ Journal of Asian history, Volume 25. O. Harrassowitz. 1991. p. 127. https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-history_1991_25_1. 
  35. ↑ Menzies, Gavin (2 February 2003). "'1421'". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/02/books/chapters/0202-1st-menzi.html. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty. SUNY Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-7914-2687-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ka6jNJcX_ygC&pg=PA16. 
  37. ↑ 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong), 二〇〇九年四月 (April 2009), 12.(Page 18 on online document viewer, Page 12 on actual document)
  38. ↑ 祝建龙 (Zhu Jianlong), 二〇〇九年四月 (April 2009), 13. (Page 19 on online document viewer, Page 13 on actual document)
  39. ↑ Bennett Peterson, Barbara (2000). Notable women of China : Shang dynasty to the early twentieth century. Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-0765605047. https://books.google.com/books?id=KLNrqn4WLZYC&q=empress+xiao+986&pg=PA259. 
  40. ↑ McMahon, Keith (6 June 2013). Women Shall Not Rule. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442222908. https://books.google.com/books?id=gc_3IXkwG3QC&pg=PA261. 
  41. ↑ McMahon, Keith (2013). Women Shall Not Rule. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442222908. https://books.google.com/books?id=gc_3IXkwG3QC&pg=PA269. 
  42. ↑ McMahon, Keith (2013). Women shall not rule : imperial wives and concubines in China from Han to Liao. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 261. ISBN 978-1442222892. 
  43. ↑ John DeFrancis (1993). In the footsteps of Genghis Khan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 193. ISBN 0-8248-1493-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=mwDJ-3XPNooC&q=tangut+castrate+genghis&pg=PA193. 
  44. ↑ Translations of the Peking Gazette. 1880. p. 83. https://books.google.com/books?id=Yjg1AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA83. 
  45. ↑ The American annual cyclopedia and register of important events of the year ..., Volume 4. D. Appleton and Company. 1888. p. 145. https://books.google.com/books?id=DqYoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA145. 
  46. ↑ Appletons' annual cyclopedia and register of important events: Embracing political, military, and ecclesiastical affairs; public documents; biography, statistics, commerce, finance, literature, science, agriculture, and mechanical industry, Volume 19. Appleton. 1886. p. 145. https://books.google.com/books?id=3xYbAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA145. 
  47. ↑ James D. Hague (1904). Clarence King Memoirs: The Helmet of Mambrino. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 50. https://archive.org/details/clarencekingmemo00centrich. Retrieved 19 September 2016. "Cruelty to Children Yakoob Beg." 
  48. ↑ "THE PROTECTION OF CHILDREN.; CASE OF THE KINGMA CHILDREN—LETTER FROM THE STATE DEPARTMENT.". The New York Times (New York). 20 March 1880. https://www.nytimes.com/1880/03/20/archives/the-protection-of-children-case-of-the-kingma-childrenletter-from.html. 
  49. ↑ Jung Chang (2014). Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China. New York: Anchor. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-385-35037-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=bp4toTYNDLkC&pg=PT170. 
  50. ↑ "내시 : 지식백과" (in ko). http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=367722. 
  51. ↑ Peter McAllister (2010). Manthropology: The Science of Why the Modern Male Is Not the Man He Used to Be. Macmillan. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-312-55543-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=U-fc5X0cUjwC&pg=PA280. 
  52. ↑ Gwyn Campbell; Suzanne Miers; Joseph Calder Miller (2009). Children in slavery through the ages. Ohio University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8214-1877-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=S3Y2PTI_vYYC&pg=PA137. 
  53. ↑ Theo Công An Nhân Dân (18 July 2013). "Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn". Zing News. http://news.zing.vn/xa-hoi/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen/a336065.html. 
  54. ↑ Theo Công An Nhân Dân (18 July 2013). "Bí mật về thái giám trong cung triều Nguyễn". Zing news. http://news.zing.vn/xa-hoi/bi-mat-ve-thai-giam-trong-cung-trieu-nguyen/a336065.html. 
  55. ↑ Taylor, K. W. (2013). A history of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0521875868. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Tsai (1996), p. 15 The Eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 15, at Google Books
  57. ↑ Nguyẽ̂n (2008), p. 169 The History Buddhism in Vietnam, Vol. IIID.5, p. 169, at Google Books
  58. ↑ Wang (2000), p. 135 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China, p. 135, at Google Books
  59. ↑ Goodrich (1976), p. 691 Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644, p. 691, at Google Books
  60. ↑ Campbell (2009), p. 147 Children in Slavery Through the Ages, p. 147, at Google Books
  61. ↑ Tran (2006), p. 116 Việt Nam: Borderless Histories, p. 116, at Google Books
  62. ↑ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Reinhold Rost (1887). Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society from Dalrymple's "Oriental Repertory," and the "Asiatic Researches" and "Journal" of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 1. LONDON: Trübner & Co.. p. 252. https://archive.org/details/miscellaneouspa00irelgoog. 
  63. ↑ Rost (1887), p. 252 Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelage: reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, Volume 1, p. 252, at Google Books
  64. ↑ Wade 2005, p. 3785/86
  65. ↑ Wade 2005, p. 2078/79
  66. ↑ Leo K. Shin (2007). "Ming China and Its Border with Annam". in Diana Lary. The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0774813334. https://archive.org/details/chinesestateatbo0000unse/page/92. Retrieved 5 January 2013. 
  67. ↑ "首页 > 06史藏-1725部 > 03别史-100部 > 49-明实录宪宗实录-- > 106-明宪宗纯皇帝实录卷之一百六" (in zh). 明實錄 (Ming Shilu). http://wenxian.fanren8.com/06/03/49/106.htm. Retrieved 5 January 2013. 
  68. ↑ 《明宪宗实录》卷一百六，成化八年七月癸亥
  69. ↑ Tsai (1996), p. 16 The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 16, at Google Books
  70. ↑ Tsai (1996), p. 245 The Eunuchs in the Ming dynasty (Ming Tai Huan Kuan), p. 245, at Google Books
  71. ↑ Leo K. Shin (2007). Diana Lary. ed. The Chinese State at the Borders (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0774813334. https://archive.org/details/chinesestateatbo0000unse/page/91. Retrieved 5 January 2013. 
  72. ↑ Cooke (2011), p. 108 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 108, at Google Books
  73. ↑ Cooke (2011), p. 109 The Tongking Gulf Through History, p. 109, at Google Books
  74. ↑ Chandler (1987), p. 129 In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History, p. 129, at Google Books
  75. ↑ Andaya (2006), p. 177 The Flaming Womb: Repositioning Women in Early Modern Southeast Asia, p. 177, at Google Books
  76. ↑ Woodside (1971), p. 66 Vietnam and the Chinese Model: A Comparative Study of Nguyen and Ch'ing Civil Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, p. 66, at Google Books
  77. ↑ Fodor's (2012), p. 31 Fodor's See It Vietnam, 3rd Edition, p. 31, at Google Books
  78. ↑ Stearns (2006), p. 1 Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China, p. 1, at Google Books
  79. ↑ "Thomas Jefferson, A Bill for Proportioning Crimes and Punishments 1778 Papers 2:492—504l". http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendVIIIs10.html. 
  80. ↑ "Lawmaker introduces sex offender castration bill in Alabama". CBS News. 7 March 2016. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lawmaker-introduces-sex-offender-castration-bill-in-alabama/. 
  81. ↑ "Castrated men live longer" (in en). 2013-03-07. https://ami.group.uq.edu.au/castrated-men-live-longer. 
  82. ↑ Schmidt, William E. (26 November 1983). "Rape Sentence: Castration or 30 Years". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/26/us/rape-sentence-castration-or-30-years.html. 
  83. ↑ Hirsley, Michael (10 January 1985). "3 ask for castration as option to prison" (in en-US). https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-01-10-8501020772-story.html. 
  84. ↑ Ellis, Mike (20 January 2016). "Anderson's infamous rapist, once set to be castrated, gets new prison term" (in en). https://www.independentmail.com/story/news/local/2016/01/20/andersons-infamous-rapist-once-set-to-be-castrated-gets-new-prison-term/88660372/. 
  85. ↑ "Milestone 64: 'He Was a Progressive'". National Geographic (SASARAM, BIHAR, INDIA: National Geographic). March 28, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/out-of-eden-walk/milestones/2019-03-milestone-64-father-his-people/#introduction. 
  86. ↑ https://https//www.brownpundits.com/2020/09/13/the-religion-of-hindus-before-hinduism/#comment-73157
  87. ↑ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1950). Mediaeval India. S. Viswanathan. p. 173. https://books.google.com/books?id=AemN3qGONBgC&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughter of Puran Mal was given to some minstrels to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated . Another source of danger to Sher Shāh was Maldeo , the Rathor ruler of Mārwār , who had taken the ..." 
  88. ↑ Haryana (India) (1988). Prem, Kiran. ed. Haryana District Gazetteers: Mahendragarh. Haryana Gazetteers Organization. p. 336. https://books.google.com/books?id=yZhuAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "... building of caravanserai under the super vision of Mehta Puran Mal Hari Dass . ... that the Emperor , out of goodwill towards him , admitted him to his female apartments , and he , in turn , out of respect for the zanana , got himself castrated ..." 
  89. ↑ Bihar and Orissa Research Society (1921). Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Volume 7. The Society. p. 94. https://books.google.com/books?id=wzhGAQAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughler of Puran Mal and one of his nephews are said to have survived the wholesale massacre of the Rajput ... When they were brought before Sher Shah , he is said to have given order that " the boy should be castrated ( so that the ..." 
  90. ↑ Elliot, Sir Henry Miers (1962). Dowson, John. ed. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians: the Posthumous Papers of the Late Sir H.M. Elliot, Volume 4 (3 ed.). Susil Gupta. p. 123. https://books.google.com/books?id=OCoKAQAAIAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Puran Mal and his companions , like hogs at bay , failed not to exhibit valour and gallantry , but in the twinkling of an eye ... make her dance in the bazars , and ordered the boys to be castrated , that the race of the oppressor might not increase ." 
  91. ↑ Indian Journal of Social Research, Volumes 7-8. G. C. Hallen.. 1966. p. 49. https://books.google.com/books?id=7fIiAQAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "( 1957 ) Bania informants , Puranmal Mehta , is torn between his constant desire to get on by winning the influential ... with fears of impotence and of the loss of semen , which is probably the outcome of childhood anxieties about castration ." 
  92. ↑ Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Wolseley; Burn, Richard et al., eds (1937). The Cambridge History of India: The Mughul period. Macmillan. p. 53. https://books.google.com/books?id=q3lDAAAAYAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Puran Mal of Raisen 53 The siege of the fortress was protracted until the Hindus were reduced to distress , and at ... Mal was given to some minstrels to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated ." 
  93. ↑ Pushikorogia-kai (1966). Psychologia, Volume 9. Psychologia Society.. p. 229. https://books.google.com/books?id=lFDgIM_PKvYC&q=puran+mal+castrated. "One of Carstairs ' ( 1957 ) Bania informants , Puranmal Mehta , is torn between his constant desire to get on by ... castration . Today most of the people from this caste are turning to careers in politics and in civil administration in the hope of ..." 
  94. ↑ E. J. Rapson (1963). The Cambridge History of India, Volume 4. S. Chand. p. 53. https://books.google.com/books?id=U5npAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Puran Mal of Raisen 53 The siege of the fortress was protracted until the Hindus were reduced to distress , and at ... Mal was given to some ministers to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated ." 
  95. ↑ Eraly, Abraham (2000). Last Spring: The Lives and Times of Great Mughals. Penguin UK. ISBN 9351181286. https://books.google.com/books?id=vyVW0STaGBcC&dq=puran+mal+castrated&pg=PT123. "A daughter of Puran Mal who fell to the Afghans was given to itinerant minstrels to be brought up as a dancing girl; three of his young nephews were castrated. For his inexcusable treachery, Sher Shah had of course an excuse. He was, he ..." 
  96. ↑ Pal, Vijay Kumar. Invaders & Hidden Facts. Rudra Publications. p. 21. ISBN 938996038X. https://books.google.com/books?id=vcH3DwAAQBAJ&dq=puran+mal+castrated&pg=PA21. "Seeing this Pooran mal beheaded his wife and other rajputs did the same according to Nizamuddin Ahemad writes 4000thds did ... puran mal daughter was given to mistress to be a dancing girl in future and his three nephews were castrated." 
  97. ↑ Eraly, Abraham (2000). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals (revised ed.). Penguin Books India. p. 92. ISBN 0141001437. https://books.google.com/books?id=04ellRQx4nMC&dq=puran+mal+castrated&pg=PA92. "A daughter of Puran Mal who fell to the Afghans was given to itinerant minstrels to be brought up as a dancing girl ; three of his young nephews were castrated . For his inexcusable treachery , Sher Shah had of course an excuse . He was , he ..." 
  98. ↑ Sadasivan, Balaji (2011). The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India (illustrated ed.). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 224. ISBN 978-9814311670. https://books.google.com/books?id=980SAvbmpUkC&dq=puran+mal+castrated&pg=PT246. "Three young nephews of Puran Mal who survived the massacre were castrated. He decreed that the three boys and Puran Mal's daughter be exhibited and humiliated in public as dancing minstrels. Sher Shah's unscrupulous behaviour was ..." 
  99. ↑ Kolff, Dirk H. A. (2002). Naukar, Rajput, and Sepoy: The Ethnohistory of the Military Labour Market of Hindustan, 1450-1850 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 0521523052. https://books.google.com/books?id=SrdiVPsFRYIC&dq=puran+mal+castrated&pg=PA110. "medieval and even ancient Indian history and of which Rajputs like Medini Rai , Silhadi and Puran Mal were among the ... Mal to a rope - dancer in order to make her dance in the market and ordered the aforesaid three boys to be castrated in ..." 
  100. ↑ Matta, Basheer Ahmad Khan (2005). Sher Shah Suri: A Fresh Perspective (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 172. ISBN 019597882X. https://books.google.com/books?id=2VduAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "After listening to the aggrieved Muslims , Sher Shah was inclined to punish Puran Mal . But he was also conscious of the ... The boys were castrated and all were decreed to be minstrels to dance in public . This harsh treatment of the Raisain ..." 
  101. ↑ Elliot, Sir Henry Miers (1952). Dowson, John. ed. "The" History of India: The Muhammadan Period, as Told by Its Own Historians, Volume 4. S. Gupta. p. 123. https://books.google.com/books?id=ug8YAQAAIAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Puran Mal and his companions , like hogs at bay , failed not to exhibit valour and gallantry , but in the twinkling of an eye ... make her dance in the bazars , and ordered the boys to be castrated , that the race of the oppressor might not increase ." 
  102. ↑ Saletore, Rajaram Narayan (1974). Sex Life Under Indian Rulers. Orient paperback, E-158, Orient paperbacks. Hind Pocket Books. p. 71. https://books.google.com/books?id=Vf4InPH0STQC&q=puran+mal+castrated. "The wily Sher Khan , through one of his underlings , Qutb Khan Banet , managed to bring out Puran Mal , " binding himself by ... her dance in the bazars and ordered the boys to be castrated so that the race of the oppressor might not increase ." 
  103. ↑ Bihar and Orissa Research Society (1921). The Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Volume 7. p. 94. https://books.google.com/books?id=gN_HAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughter of Puran Mal and one of his nephews are said to have survived the wholesale massacre of the Rajput ... When they were brought before Sher Shah , he is said to have given order that " the boy should be castrated ( so that the ..." 
  104. ↑ Qanungo, Kalika Ranjan (1965). Sher Shah and His Times. Orient Longmans. p. 389. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ue9tAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Sher did not mean any treachery at the start ; because he was more anxious than Puranmal for compromise , and he knew full well that four thousand desperate Rajputs would not die ... 138 ) ; Ahmad Yadgar says , the boys were castrated ." 
  105. ↑ Prasad, Ishwari (1974). The Mughal Empire. Chugh Publications. p. 171. https://books.google.com/books?id=yAJuAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Sher Khan gave the daughter of Puranmal to some itinerant minstrels ( bazigaran ) , that they might make her dance in the bazars , and ordered the boys to be castrated , that the race of the oppressor might not increase . 4 Conquest of Multan ..." 
  106. ↑ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1959). History of India: Medieval India. S. Viswanathan. p. 173. https://books.google.com/books?id=5ichAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughter of Puran Mal was given to some minstrels to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated . Another source of danger to Sher Shāh was Maldeo , the Rathor ruler of Mārwār , who had taken the ..." 
  107. ↑ Sensarma, P. (1976). The Military Profile of Sher Shah Sur. Darbari Udjog. p. 122. https://books.google.com/books?id=H6odAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "The Tarikh - i - Sher Shahi describes that a daughter of Puranmal , minor in age , and three sons of his brother were ... the daughter of Puranmal to the jugglers to make her dance in the market and the three boys were ordered to be castrated ." 
  108. ↑ Mortimer Wheeler (1971). Rapson, Edward James; Haig, Sir Wolseley; Burn, Sir Richard et al.. eds. The Cambridge History of India: The Mughul period, planned by W. Haig, edited by R. Burn. S. Chand. p. 53. https://books.google.com/books?id=i4UrAQAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "PURAN MAL OF RĀISEN 53 The siege of the fortress wasuprotracted until the Hindus were reduced to distress , and at ... Mal was given to some minstrels to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated ." 
  109. ↑ Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy, and Culture, Centre for studies in civilizations (New Delhi, Inde), Indian council of philosophical research (2005). Grewal, J. S.; Chattopadhyaya, Debi Prasad. eds. The State and Society in Medieval India (reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 445. ISBN 0195667204. https://books.google.com/books?id=LKkBJyKdoZ8C&q=puran+mal+castrated. "In the case of Puran Mal of Chanderi , Sher Shah castrated his son and turned over his daughter to professional dancers in the streets , both of whom had survived jauhar . Significantly , the Rajputs are said to have performed jauhar even in ..." 
  110. ↑ Prachya Pratibha, Volumes 9-10. 1982. p. 84. https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sq2AAAAIAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "When consulted , two Ulamās including Amir Shaikh Rafiuddin announced a decision for the death of Pūran Mal . ... might make her dance in the bazars and ordered the boys to be castrated , that the race of the oppressor might not increase ." 
  111. ↑ Srivastava, Kanhaiya Lall (1980). The Position of Hindus Under the Delhi Sultanate, 1206-1526. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 203. ISBN 8121502241. https://books.google.com/books?id=-cMgAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Shershah's brutal behaviour towards Puran Mal of Raisen may be noted here . ... into the hands of Shershah who ordered the son to be castrated and the daughter to be delivered to professional dancers in the street . see Tod , op . cit . , II , p ." 
  112. ↑ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1950). History of India: Mediaeval India. Part 2 of History of India. S. Viswanathan. p. 173. https://books.google.com/books?id=kYVDAAAAYAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughter of Puran Mal was given to some minstrels to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated . Another source of danger to Sher Shāh was Maldeo , the Rathor ruler of Mārwar , who had taken the ..." 
  113. ↑ Ahmad, Kamran (2008). Roots of Religious Tolerance in Pakistan and India. Vanguard Books. p. 53. ISBN 978-9694025193. https://books.google.com/books?id=HjBAAQAAIAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A daughter of Puran Mal is said to have been given to some minister to be trained as a dancing girl and three sons of his elder brother were castrated ( Rapson , 1987 , Vol IV ; p.53 ) . But there are justifications offered for this act by Muslim ..." 
  114. ↑ Kushwaha, Rajendra Singh (2003). Glimpses of Bhāratiya History. Ocean Books. p. 300. ISBN 8188322407. https://books.google.com/books?id=EDZuAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Sher Shah gave the daughter of Puranmal to some itinerant minstrels that they might make her dance in the Bazars and ordered the boys to be castrated so that the race of the oppressor ( Hindus ) might not increase . " ( Elliot Dowson , Vol ." 
  115. ↑ Josh, Bhagwan (1992). Struggle for Hegemony in India 1920-47: The Colonial State, the Left and the National Movement Volume II: 1934-41. SAGE Publications. pp. 236, 237. ISBN 0803994397. https://books.google.com/books?id=8RduAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "993 After Puran Mal had surrendered his fort and paid his respects to Sher Shah he granted him iqta of Benares . ... Acts of humiliation and subordination are often couched in terms of symbolic castration , the assertion of one's virility over ..." 
  116. ↑ Tripathi, Ram Prasad (1960). Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire, Volume 1 (2 ed.). Central Book Depot. p. 124. https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc8BAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "The boys were castrated and the girls distributed . Among the girls was a little daughter of Puran Mal who was given to acrobats to make her dance in the bazars . The Raisen episode undoubtedly " left the deepest blot on Sher Shah's memory ..." 
  117. ↑ Anand (2002). Twilight Encounters: The Fourth Nail and Other Stories. Rupa & Company. p. 198. ISBN 8171676561. https://books.google.com/books?id=tGZkAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "He would then have been around to rout the army of Maldeo of Jodhpur and to kill Puran Mal of ... Puran Mal . He might even have been the man selected by Sher Shah to violate the girl and to sell her to the bazigaran and to castrate the boys ." 
  118. ↑ Sharma, Rita (2006). The Forts of Bundelkhand. Rupa & Company. p. 110. ISBN 812910721X. https://books.google.com/books?id=UzNuAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Puran Mal of Raisen seized Chanderi fort amidst great slaughter . Sher Shah struck back ferociously , forcing Puran Mal's garrison at Chanderi to surrender . Puran Mal was captured and killed , three of his nephews castrated and a daughter ..." 
  119. ↑ Edward James Rapson; Sir Wolseley Haig; Sir Richard Burn; Henry Dodwell (1922). The Cambridge History of India: The Mughul period, planned by W. Haig, ed. by R. Burn. The University Press. p. 53. https://books.google.com/books?id=G1pEAAAAIAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "PURAN MAL OF RAISEN 53 The siege of the fortress was protracted until the Hindus were reduced to distress , and at ... Mal was given to some ministers to be trained as a dancing girl , and three sons of his elder brother were castrated ." 
  120. ↑ Bhatia, Harbans Singh, ed (1984). Political, Legal, and Military History of India, Volume 4. Deep & Deep Publications. p. 240. https://books.google.com/books?id=yRaLAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "A son and daughter of Bhayya Puran Mal who somehow escaped being killed , fell into the hands of Sher Shah and met a worse fate . The Afghan monarch took his impotent and brutal revenge by castrating the son and turning over the ..." 
  121. ↑ Pandey, Awadh Bihari (1963). Later Medieval India: A History of the Mughals. Central Book Depot. p. 58. https://books.google.com/books?id=kAghAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Sher Shah had found nothing objectionable in the conduct of Puran Mal and so had taken no action against him . ... The nephews of Puran Mal were enslaved snd castrated to be brought up as eunuchs while a daughter was to be trained as a ..." 
  122. ↑ Saccidānandan, ed (1997). Under the Wild Skies: An Anthology of Modern Malayalam Short Stories. National Book Trust (reprint ed.). National Book Trust, India. p. 182. ISBN 8123721986. https://books.google.com/books?id=T2ZkAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "He would then have been around to rout the army of Maldeo of Jodhpur and to kill Puran Mal of Malwa by deception . ... have been the man selected by Sher Shah to violate the girl and to sell her to the bazigaran and to castrate the boys ." 
  123. ↑ Cāwalā, Harabam̆sa Siṅgha (1990). Gurū Grantha-bāṇī wica samakālī samājika cittara. Pañjābī Rāīṭaraza Koāpareṭiwa Sosāiṭī. p. 260. https://books.google.com/books?id=mYQM39Ej9QwC&q=puran+mal+castrated. "Sber Shah gave the daughter of Puran Mal to some itinerant ministerls ( Bazigaran ) , that they migbt make ber dance in the Bazars , and ordered the boys to be castrated that the race of the oppressor might not increase . Tu aina ਐਂਡ ..." 
  124. ↑ Sarvānī, ʻAbbās Khān (1963). Tārīkh-i Sher Shāhī. 2. p. 147. https://books.google.com/books?id=6FYPAAAAMAAJ&q=puran+mal+castrated. "He gave the daughter of Puran Mal to the jugglers to make her dance in the market and the three boys were ordered to be castrated so that the line of descent of that oppressor be severed . He gave the fort of Raisin to Shahbaz Khan Achha ..." 
  125. ↑ Mill, James (1858). Wilson, Horace Hayman. ed. The History of British India, Volume 9 (5 ed.). Madden. https://books.google.com/books?id=4MrF0tIpc9IC&q=puran+mal+castrated. 
  126. ↑ Hinchy, Jessica (2015). "Enslaved childhoods in eighteenth-century Awadh". South Asian History and Culture (Routledge) 6 (3: Childhoods in India: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives): 7, 8. doi:10.1080/19472498.2015.1030874. https://www.academia.edu/12086314. 
  127. ↑ Bowen, Zazie; Hinchy, Jessica, eds (2020). Children and Knowledge: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives from India. Routledge South Asian History and Culture Series (reprint ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1000740417. https://books.google.com/books?id=5NXpDwAAQBAJ&dq=Hundreds+of+unbelievers+went+to+hell%2C+and+most+of+their+women+and+children+were+captured.+When+the+Naw%C3%A1b&pg=PT105. 
  128. ↑ Chatterjee, Indrani (July 1996). Slavery and the Househol in Bengal, 1770-1880 (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of London. p. 63. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  129. ↑ Bakhsh, Muhammad Faiz; Hoey, William (2005). Qureshi, Hamid Afaq. ed. Memoirs of Faizabad, Being a Translation of the "Tarikh-i-Farahbakhsh" of Muhammad Faiz Bakhsh: 1782-1818. Part 2 of Memoirs of Faizabad, Being a Translation of the "Tarikh-i-Farahbakhsh" of Muhammad Faiz Bakhsh. New Royal Book Company. p. 218. ISBN 8185936927. https://books.google.com/books?id=xQhWAAAAYAAJ&q=Bahar+Ali+brahmin+eunuch+castrated+nawab. "Out of regard for Zainu'labdin and in remembrance of Bahar Ali Khan's kindness to me , I went to Jawahir Ali Khan and interceded and pleaded until I ... She bought a Brahman boy from his father and mother in year of famine and brought him up as her son . ... The castrators lifted him , carried him off , castrated him and sold him to the Nawab , who made him over to Shuja'u'ddaulah . The latter entrusted him for education and board to Khushnazr Ali Khan , who was a very old eunuch ." 
  130. ↑ Hinchy, Jessica Bridgette (January 2013). Power, Perversion and Panic: Eunuchs, Colonialism and Modernity in North India (PDF) (PhD thesis). pp. 63, 64, 65.
  131. ↑ Bowen, Zazie; Hinchy, Jessica, eds (2020). Children and Knowledge: Contemporary and Historical Perspectives from India. Routledge South Asian History and Culture Series (reprint ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1000740417. https://books.google.com/books?id=5NXpDwAAQBAJ&dq=jawahir+ali+eunuch&pg=PT110. 
  132. ↑ Bhasin, Rakesh (2018). Dastan-e-Awadh: A Momentous Journey from Faizabad to Lucknow. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1642498820. https://books.google.com/books?id=1lhbDwAAQBAJ&dq=jawahir+ali+eunuch&pg=PT184. 
  133. ↑ BAYLY, C. A. (1988). "CHAPTER 10 The origins of swadeshi (home industry): cloth and Indian society, 1700-1930". in Appadurai, Arjun. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective. ACLS Humanities E-Book, Cambridge studies in social and cultural anthropology (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 304. ISBN 0521357268. https://books.google.com/books?id=6JqTcziwKTYC&dq=jawahir+ali+eunuch&pg=PA304. 
  134. ↑ Hinchy, Jessica; Miescher, Stephan F.; Mitchell, Michele; Shibusawa, Naoko (2015). "PART I Labour 1 The Sexual Politics of Imperial Expansion: Eunuchs and Indirect Colonial Rule in Mid-Nineteenth-Century North India". Gender, Imperialism and Global Exchanges. Gender and History Special Issues (reprint ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 30. ISBN 978-1119052197. https://books.google.com/books?id=JEkZBwAAQBAJ&dq=jawahir+ali+eunuch&pg=PA30. 
  135. ↑ Pakistan Historical Society (1994). Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, Volume 42. Pakistan Historical Society.. pp. 116, 117, 118. https://books.google.com/books?id=w_htAAAAMAAJ&q=jawahir+ali+eunuch. "Salih , leaving the service of Jawahir ' Ali Khan joined the service of Bani Khānam . He entreated that his wife Nūrjahān ... and it was not expedient to stay in . She again spoke to the Bahū Begum who sent a eunuch to Jawāhir ' Ali Khān saying ... Jawahir ' Ali Khān was so much in the heat of passion that he became reckless , and forgetting the relations of master and servant , he returned no answer ..." 
  136. ↑ "Alabama Moves to State-Ordered Castration". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/06/alabama-chemical-castration/591226/. 
  137. ↑ Katherine Amlin. "Chemical Castration: The Benefits and Disadvantages Intrinsic to Injecting Male Pedophiliacs with Depo-Provera". http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f02/web1/kamlin.html. 
  138. ↑ "'Chemical castration' OK'd for Montana inmates". N.Y. Times News Service. 1997. http://archive.southcoasttoday.com/daily/04-97/04-27-97/a09wn032.htm. 
  139. ↑ "Grant a pardon to Alan Turing". 6 December 2011. https://submissions.epetitions.direct.gov.uk/petitions/23526. 
  140. ↑ "Council of Europe report on the Czech Republic". Cpt.coe.int. 5 February 2009. http://www.cpt.coe.int/documents/cze/2009-02-05-eng.htm. 
  141. ↑ Dan Bilefsky (10 March 2009). "Europeans Debate Castration of Sex Offenders". The New York Times (Europe;Czech Republic). https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/11/world/europe/11castrate.html. 
  142. ↑ 142.0 142.1 Whitehead, Tom (20 May 2009). "Sex offences advisor backs castration". The Daily Telegraph (London). https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/lawandorder/5351019/Sex-offences-advisor-backs-castration.html. 
  143. ↑ "Cutting the numbers re-offending?". Channel 4. 20 May 2009. http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/europe/cutting%20the%20numbers%20reoffending%20%20/3158772. 
  144. ↑ "Pakistani Kashmir approves castration for pedophilia". EFE. July 2, 2020. https://www.efe.com/efe/english/portada/pakistani-kashmir-approves-castration-for-pedophilia/50000260-4287072. 
  145. ↑ "Nigeria: House of Reps Rejects Castration as Punishment for Rapists". 5 June 2020. https://allafrica.com/stories/202006050186.html. 
  146. ↑ "Rapists should be castrated—Gbajabiamila | Premium Times Nigeria". 15 July 2020. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/403148-rapists-should-be-castrated-gbajabiamila.html. 
  147. ↑ "Kano Monarch okays castration for rapists". 24 August 2020. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/08/kano-monarch-okays-castration-for-rapists/. 
  148. ↑ Christine Horne, Michael J. Lovaglia (2008). "Experiments in Criminology and Law: A Research Revolution"
  149. ↑ Lorie A. Fridell (2016). "Producing Bias-Free Policing: A Science-Based Approach"
  150. ↑ 150.0 150.1 150.2 Myrttinen, Henri (2018). "Languages of castration – male genital mutilation in conflict and its embedded messages" (in en). Sexual Violence Against Men in Global Politics. Routledge. pp. 72, 79. ISBN 978-1-315-45647-8. 
  151. ↑ Molvaer, Reidulf Knut (1995). Socialization and social control in Ethiopia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 104. 
  152. ↑ Antonicelli, Franco (1975) (in it). Trent'anni di storia italiana: dall'antifascismo alla Resistenza (1915–1945) lezioni con testimonianze. Reprints Einaudi. Torino: Giulio Einaudi Editore. p. 79. OCLC 878595757. 
  153. ↑ Zamorani, Massimo (May 2013). "La strage della "Gondrand"" (in it). Storia Militare XXI (236): 37–39. 
  154. ↑ Declaration of Abdel Mohsein El Uisci in the Dossier "ASD - MAE Etiopia Fondo Guerra, 131/34" given to the League of Nations by the Italian government
  155. ↑ Richardson, F. C. Man Is Not Lost: the Log of a Pioneer RAF Pilot/Navigator 1933-1946 1997 p.113 ISBN 1853108685
  156. ↑ Jankowicz, Mia (29 July 2022). "Zelenskyy aide says Russia must pay after horrific video appears to show captive soldier being castrated". Insider Inc.. https://www.businessinsider.com/ukraine-prisoner-castration-video-sparks-horrified-reaction-2022-7. 
  157. ↑ Barber, Harriet (28 November 2022). "Castration, gang-rape, forced nudity: How Russia's soldiers terrorise Ukraine with sexual violence". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/how-russian-soldiers-terrorise-ukraine-sexual-violence/. 
  158. ↑ Lamb, Christina (17 June 2023). "She thought she was unshockable, then two castrated Ukrainian soldiers arrived". The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/ukraine-soldiers-castrated-russia-war-0hflzhzlv. 
  159. ↑ Luckhurst, Josh (18 June 2023). "Ukrainian prisoners of war return having been castrated by drunken Russian soldiers". The Mirror. https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/ukrainian-prisoners-war-return-having-30261093. 
  160. ↑ "'Worse than hell': Castrated Ukrainian soldier details months of torture as a prisoner of war". 20 June 2023. https://www.news.com.au/world/europe/worse-than-hell-castrated-ukrainian-soldier-details-months-of-torture-as-a-prisoner-of-war/news-story/e1e137782ce73e85714ed358292f03e3/work=news.com.au. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  161. ↑ Brancati, Dawn (12 April 2022). "Sexual Violence in the Russian Invasion of the Ukraine". ISS Reflections Series (Interview). Yale Jackson School of Global Affairs. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  162. ↑ John Rosselli, "Castrato" article in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2001.
  163. ↑ Ellis, Samantha (5 August 2002). "All mouth and no trousers". https://www.theguardian.com/music/2002/aug/05/classicalmusicandopera.artsfeatures. 
  164. ↑ "Javier Medina – 'I'm A Natural Castrato'". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/74d57b3c-a7b8-11dd-865e-000077b07658.html. 
  165. ↑ "Religion and expressive culture – Hijra". Everyculture.com. http://www.everyculture.com/South-Asia/Hijra-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture.html. 
  166. ↑ "NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine". Ccel.org. 13 July 2005. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xi.viii.html. 
  167. ↑ Eusebius' Church History Book 6, Chapter 8 Origen's Daring Deed note 1809: "This act of Origen's has been greatly discussed, and some have even gone so far as to believe that he never committed the act ... There is no reason, however, to doubt the report, for which we have unimpeachable testimony, and which is in itself not at all surprising ..."
  168. ↑ Talmud Shabbos 110b
  169. ↑ "Ask the Rabbi: Vasectomy". 20 August 2011. https://www.aish.com/atr/Vasectomy.html. 
  170. ↑ Roscoe, Will; Murray, Stephen (1997). Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature. NYU Press. 
  171. ↑ As Abdullah ibn Mas'ood said, "We were on a campaign with the Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him), and we had no women with us. We said: Why don't we get ourselves castrated? But he forbade us to do that."Al-Bukhari, Imam Muhammad. "Book 62, Hadith 13" (in en). Sahih Al-Bukhari, Volume 7. https://sunnah.com/bukhari:5075. 
  172. ↑ Berger, Morroe; Levy, Reuben (August 1957). "The Social Structure of Islam.". American Sociological Review 22 (4): 479. doi:10.2307/2089185. ISSN 0003-1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2089185. 
  173. ↑ Brunschvig, Robert (1962). "Metiers vils en Islam". Studia Islamica (16): 41–60. doi:10.2307/1595118. ISSN 0585-5292. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1595118. 
  174. ↑ Peschel, Enid Rhodes; Peschel, Richard E. (1987). "Medical Insights into the Castrati in Opera". American Scientist 75 (6): 578–583. ISSN 0003-0996. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/27854886.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Ae4efd2eca6fdd098da92935471e1f7e5&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=&acceptTC=1. Retrieved 30 January 2024. 
  175. ↑ Hamilton, J. B. (1960). "Effect of castration in adolescent and young adult males upon further changes in the proportions of bare and hairy scalp". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 20 (10): 1309–1318. doi:10.1210/jcem-20-10-1309. PMID 13711016. 
  176. ↑ "The various types of eunuch in the Byzantine state: their role and symbolic meaning". http://www.medspe.fr/site/templates/template.php?identifiant_article=2166&surlignage=2&PHPSESSID=bd0a2427de5e5665b9c541ca8a6ecc71. 
  177. ↑ "Upside to castration? Eunuchs lived longer, study finds". http://vitals.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/09/24/14070451-upside-to-castration-eunuchs-lived-longer-study-finds. 
  178. ↑ "Can Castration Be a Solution for Sex Offenders? Man Who Mutilated Himself in Jail Thinks So, but Debate on Its Effectiveness Continues in Va., Elsewhere" by Candace Rondeaux for the Washington Post, 5 July 2006
  179. ↑ "Chemical castration – breaking the cycle of paraphiliac recidivism" Social Justice, Spring, 1999 by Christopher Meisenkothen.
  180. ↑ Douglas, Thomas; Bonte, Pieter; Focquaert, Farah; Devolder, Katrien; Sterckx, Sigrid (2013). "Coercion, Incarceration, and Chemical Castration: An Argument From Autonomy". Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 10 (3): 393–405. doi:10.1007/s11673-013-9465-4. PMID 23813324. 
  181. ↑ "Castrated California Child Molester Wants Freedom". Fox News Channel. 3 July 2006. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,201918,00.html. 
  182. ↑ Needham, T.; Lambrechts, H.; Hoffman, L.C. (9 November 2017). "Castration of male livestock and the potential of immunocastration to improve animal we". South African Journal of Animal Science 47 (6): 731. doi:10.4314/sajas.v47i6.1. 
  183. ↑ Genetics of Boar Taint: Implications for the Future Use of Intact Males
  184. ↑ "Managing Boar Taint: Focus on Genetic Markers". The Pig Site. 12 August 2007. http://www.thepigsite.com/articles/3245/managing-boar-taint-focus-on-genetic-markers/. 
  185. ↑ 185.0 185.1 [1]
  186. ↑ "Mythbusting Boar Taint". The Pig Site. http://www.thepigsite.com/articles/3950/mythbusting-boar-taint/. 
  187. ↑ Teske, E.; Naan, E. C.; Van Dijk, E. M.; Van Garderen, E.; Schalken, J. A. (2002). "Canine prostate carcinoma: epidemiological evidence of an increased risk in castrated dogs". Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 197 (1–2): 251–5. doi:10.1016/S0303-7207(02)00261-7. PMID 12431819. 
  188. ↑ Lekcharoensuk; Osborne, C. A.; Lulich, J. P. (2001). "Epidemiologic study of risk factors for lower urinary tract diseases in cats". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218 (9): 1429–35. doi:10.2460/javma.2001.218.1429. PMID 11345305. 
  189. ↑ Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Beef Cattle. 2013. www.nfacc.ca/codes-of-practice/beef-cattle

Bibliography

External links



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Medicine:Castration&oldid=3709214"