Philosophy:Neuromorality

From HandWiki
Short description: Field of neuroscience

Neuromorality is an emerging field of neuroscience that studies the connection between morality and neuronal function.[1][2] Scientists use fMRI and psychological assessment together to investigate the neural basis of moral cognition and behavior.[3][4][5][6] Evidence shows that the central hub of morality is the prefrontal cortex guiding activity to other nodes of the neuromoral network.[6][7] A spectrum of functional characteristics within this network to give rise to both altruistic and psychopathological behavior. Evidence from the investigation of neuromorality has applications in both clinical neuropsychiatry and forensic neuropsychiatry.

Brain anatomy

Areas of the brain related to moral processing and their corresponding citation density

The main brain regions that are involved in the regulation of moral cognition and behavior are those of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and amygdala.[6][2][7] Less pronounced areas that are involved in moral regulation include the anterior cingulate gyrus,[8] posterior cingulate gyrus,[9] anterior insula,[10] and the mesolimbic reward pathway.[11]

Methods of investigation

To analyze the neuromoral circuit scientists perform experimental paradigms utilizing fMRI and tasks that assess moral reasoning and judgment. One method includes the administration of moral dilemmas to subjects, in the form of anecdotes, while their brain activity is measured by fMRI.[3] Another approach includes the presentation of emotionally charged moral or immoral scenes and images to subjects while their brain activity is measured by fMRI.[4] Moreover, measuring neuronal assembly activity during personal and impersonal moral dilemmas has also been a method of investigating morality at the brain level.[6] Finally, the pathological approach investigates tissue abnormalities in the neuromoral network and links them to potential cognitive and behavioral deficits.

Functional order

Normal functioning of the neuromoral network involves specific patterns of activity when performing moral tasks. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is the hub of the neuromoral circuit allowing for the processing of morally charged stimuli and the subsequent generation of states such as empathy, charitableness, fairness, and guilt.[12][13][14] The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex allows for the integration of those states, subsequent moral reasoning, and generation of the ability to override emotional states relating to morality.[3][6] The orbitofrontal cortex allows for the processing of moral or immoral behaviors performed by others allowing for mapping and imitation of the observed behaviors.[15][16][17] The amygdala allows for sensory recognition of non-integrated emotional stimuli that are channeled to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex for moral indexing and processing.[6][2][7] The mesolimbic reward pathway has been implicated with the generation of pleasurable feelings when a non-moral act is performed towards a hostile entity, a phenomenon called Schadenfreude.[8][11] The cingulate cortex allows for conflict regulation when performing an immoral action and the feeling of envy when self identified entities are overcome by non identified ones.[8]

Functional disorder

Psychopathy

Psychopathy is a brain disorder remarked by lack of moral emotions, empathy, remorse and guilt. People with psychopathy appear to have defects in moral judgement, but not in moral reasoning.[18][19] Neuroimaging of the psychopathic brain has revealed hypoperfusion and hypometabolism in areas of the frontal cortex.[20][21][22][23] The areas of the medial prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex correlate with a higher score in the psychopathy scale.[23][24] The amygdala is also dysfunctional in psychopaths decreasing the ability to recognize emotional stimuli and lacking the ability to promote activity in the moral promoting region of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.[25][26][27]

Brain lesions

Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex led Phineas Gage to act without any moral consideration.

The most studied case of a brain lesion affecting the neuromoral network was that of Phineas Gage who suffered from damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex due to an accident.[28] The damage led Gage through a complete personality transformation that included the expression of socially inappropriate statements and lies towards his family and friends. Lesions in the right hemisphere's frontal lobe are associated with antisocial states[29] and left frontal lesions are associated with increase in violent behaviors.[30][31] Individuals with focal lesions in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex exhibit amoral choices in moral tasks and lack of empathy, compassion, shame, and guilt.[32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]

Clinical neuropsychology

The study of brain areas that relate to morality can be utilized to promote moral behavior through transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct-current stimulation. Stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex results in reduction of racial biases and increase in rejection of unfair offers.[42][43] Stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex increases trust and cooperation,[44] decreases proactive aggression in males,[45] increases empathy,[46] and increases the acceptance of unfair offers.[47] Stimulation of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex decreases aggressive behavior following exclusion.[48]

Forensic neuroscience

Criminal offenders have substantial impairment in elements of the neuromoral circuit.[49] Dysfunction in the area of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been linked to the antisocial features of impulsivity and lack of social inhibition.[50] Dysfunction to the anterior cingulate has been linked to low emotional processing and increased aggressiveness.[51][52] As in the case of Michael below, damage to the orbitofrontal cortex has been linked to antisocial and criminal behavior.[53][54] Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex has been linked to antisocial behavior, poor and amoral decision making, and reduced autonomic response to emotionally arousing stimuli.[55] Evidence relating to the function of the neuromoral circuit has been proposed to be a new avenue towards the justice of criminal offenders.[56] Such an application includes the ability to detect lying through fMRI.[57]

A case where the neuromoral circuits function was implicated with the judiciary system was that of Michael.[53] Michael was a school teacher who started behaving abnormally by bringing pornographic content to school and trying to have sexual intercourse with his stepdaughter. When he was taken into custody he expressed severe headaches and was taken to the nearby hospital. An fMRI of his brain revealed a tumor in the base of his orbitofrontal cortex. When the tumor was removed his behavior returned to normal.

The story of Donta Page[58] is another example of the application of our knowledge of the neuromoral circuit. Page was trialled for the rape and murder of a young woman. During the trial his past history of being abused in conjunction to imaging of his brain, showing damage to the neuromoral circuit, led to the reduction his sentence from death sentence to imprisonment for life.

References

  1. ↑ Wilson, James Q. (1998-01-01). The moral sense. Free Press. ISBN 978-0684833323. OCLC 60157206. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Moll, Jorge; de Oliveira-Souza, Ricardo; Eslinger, Paul J. (2003-03-03). "Morals and the human brain: a working model". NeuroReport 14 (3): 299–305. doi:10.1097/00001756-200303030-00001. PMID 12634472. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Greene, J. D.; Sommerville, R. B.; Nystrom, L. E.; Darley, J. M.; Cohen, J. D. (2001-09-14). "An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment". Science 293 (5537): 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872. PMID 11557895. Bibcode: 2001Sci...293.2105G. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Moll, Jorge; de Oliveira-Souza, Ricardo; Eslinger, Paul J.; Bramati, Ivanei E.; Mourão-Miranda, Janaína; Andreiuolo, Pedro Angelo; Pessoa, Luiz (2002-04-01). "The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions". The Journal of Neuroscience 22 (7): 2730–2736. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-07-02730.2002. PMID 11923438. 
  5. ↑ Schaich Borg, Jana; Hynes, Catherine; Van Horn, John; Grafton, Scott; Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2006-05-01). "Consequences, action, and intention as factors in moral judgments: an FMRI investigation". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 18 (5): 803–817. doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.5.803. PMID 16768379. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Greene, Joshua D.; Nystrom, Leigh E.; Engell, Andrew D.; Darley, John M.; Cohen, Jonathan D. (2004-10-14). "The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment". Neuron 44 (2): 389–400. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.027. PMID 15473975. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Moll, Jorge; Zahn, Roland; de Oliveira-Souza, Ricardo; Krueger, Frank; Grafman, Jordan (2005-10-01). "Opinion: the neural basis of human moral cognition". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience 6 (10): 799–809. doi:10.1038/nrn1768. PMID 16276356. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Takahashi, Hidehiko; Kato, Motoichiro; Matsuura, Masato; Mobbs, Dean; Suhara, Tetsuya; Okubo, Yoshiro (2009-02-13). "When your gain is my pain and your pain is my gain: neural correlates of envy and schadenfreude". Science 323 (5916): 937–939. doi:10.1126/science.1165604. PMID 19213918. Bibcode: 2009Sci...323..937T. 
  9. ↑ Robertson, Diana; Snarey, John; Ousley, Opal; Harenski, Keith; DuBois Bowman, F.; Gilkey, Rick; Kilts, Clinton (2007-03-02). "The neural processing of moral sensitivity to issues of justice and care". Neuropsychologia 45 (4): 755–766. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.08.014. PMID 17174987. https://repository.upenn.edu/neuroethics_pubs/44. 
  10. ↑ Hsu, Ming; Anen, Cédric; Quartz, Steven R. (2008-05-23). "The right and the good: distributive justice and neural encoding of equity and efficiency". Science 320 (5879): 1092–1095. doi:10.1126/science.1153651. PMID 18467558. Bibcode: 2008Sci...320.1092H. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/51629/7/Hsu.SOM.revision.1.pdf. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Schaefer, Alexandre; Collette, Fabienne; Philippot, Pierre; van der Linden, Martial; Laureys, Steven; Delfiore, Guy; Degueldre, Christian; Maquet, Pierre et al. (2003-04-01). "Neural correlates of "hot" and "cold" emotional processing: a multilevel approach to the functional anatomy of emotion". NeuroImage 18 (4): 938–949. doi:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00009-0. PMID 12725769. 
  12. ↑ Moll, Jorge; de Oliveira-Souza, Ricardo (2007-08-01). "Moral judgments, emotions and the utilitarian brain". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11 (8): 319–321. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.06.001. PMID 17602852. 
  13. ↑ Harenski, Carla L.; Hamann, Stephan (2006-03-01). "Neural correlates of regulating negative emotions related to moral violations". NeuroImage 30 (1): 313–324. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.034. PMID 16249098. 
  14. ↑ Decety, Jean; Jackson, Philip L. (2004-06-01). "The functional architecture of human empathy". Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews 3 (2): 71–100. doi:10.1177/1534582304267187. PMID 15537986. 
  15. ↑ Shamay-Tsoory, Simone G.; Aharon-Peretz, Judith; Perry, Daniella (2009-03-01). "Two systems for empathy: a double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions". Brain 132 (Pt 3): 617–627. doi:10.1093/brain/awn279. PMID 18971202. 
  16. ↑ Iacoboni, Marco; Mazziotta, John C. (2007-09-01). "Mirror neuron system: basic findings and clinical applications". Annals of Neurology 62 (3): 213–218. doi:10.1002/ana.21198. PMID 17721988. 
  17. ↑ Fabbri-Destro, Maddalena; Rizzolatti, Giacomo (2008-06-01). "Mirror neurons and mirror systems in monkeys and humans". Physiology 23 (3): 171–179. doi:10.1152/physiol.00004.2008. PMID 18556470. 
  18. ↑ Karina, Blair; Robert, Mitchell, Derek (2010-01-01). The psychopath : emotion and the brain. Blackwell Publ. ISBN 9780631233350. OCLC 838089275. 
  19. ↑ Kiehl, Kent A. (2006-06-15). "A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction". Psychiatry Research 142 (2–3): 107–128. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.09.013. PMID 16712954. 
  20. ↑ Raine, A.; Buchsbaum, M.; LaCasse, L. (1997-09-15). "Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography". Biological Psychiatry 42 (6): 495–508. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00362-9. PMID 9285085. 
  21. ↑ Critchley, H. D.; Simmons, A.; Daly, E. M.; Russell, A.; van Amelsvoort, T.; Robertson, D. M.; Glover, A.; Murphy, D. G. (2000-05-15). "Prefrontal and medial temporal correlates of repetitive violence to self and others". Biological Psychiatry 47 (10): 928–934. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(00)00231-6. PMID 10807966. 
  22. ↑ Soderstrom, Henrik; Hultin, Leif; Tullberg, Mats; Wikkelso, Carsten; Ekholm, Sven; Forsman, Anders (2002-06-15). "Reduced frontotemporal perfusion in psychopathic personality". Psychiatry Research 114 (2): 81–94. doi:10.1016/S0925-4927(02)00006-9. PMID 12036508. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 de Oliveira-Souza, Ricardo; Hare, Robert D.; Bramati, Ivanei E.; Garrido, Griselda J.; Ignácio, Fátima Azevedo; Tovar-Moll, Fernanda; Moll, Jorge (2008-04-01). "Psychopathy as a disorder of the moral brain: Fronto-temporo-limbic grey matter reductions demonstrated by voxel-based morphometry" (in en). NeuroImage 40 (3): 1202–1213. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.12.054. PMID 18289882. 
  24. ↑ Tiihonen, Jari; Rossi, Roberta; Laakso, Mikko P.; Hodgins, Sheilagh; Testa, Cristina; Perez, Jorge; Repo-Tiihonen, Eila; Vaurio, Olli et al. (2008-08-30). "Brain anatomy of persistent violent offenders: more rather than less". Psychiatry Research 163 (3): 201–212. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.08.012. PMID 18662866. 
  25. ↑ Veit, Ralf; Flor, Herta; Erb, Michael; Hermann, Christiane; Lotze, Martin; Grodd, Wolfgang; Birbaumer, Niels (2002-08-16). "Brain circuits involved in emotional learning in antisocial behavior and social phobia in humans". Neuroscience Letters 328 (3): 233–236. doi:10.1016/S0304-3940(02)00519-0. PMID 12147314. 
  26. ↑ Finger, Elizabeth C.; Marsh, Abigail A.; Mitchell, Derek G.; Reid, Marguerite E.; Sims, Courtney; Budhani, Salima; Kosson, David S.; Chen, Gang et al. (2008-05-01). "Abnormal ventromedial prefrontal cortex function in children with psychopathic traits during reversal learning". Archives of General Psychiatry 65 (5): 586–594. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.5.586. PMID 18458210. 
  27. ↑ Blair, R. J. R. (2007-09-01). "The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex in morality and psychopathy". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 11 (9): 387–392. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.07.003. PMID 17707682. 
  28. ↑ García-Molina, A. (2012-07-01). "[Phineas Gage and the enigma of the prefrontal cortex]". Neurologia (Barcelona, Spain) 27 (6): 370–375. doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2010.07.015. PMID 21163195. 
  29. ↑ Filley, CM; Kletenik, I; Churchland, PS (2020-12-02). "Morality and the Brain: The Right Hemisphere and Doing Right". Cogn Behav Neurol 33 (4): 304–307. doi:10.1097/WNN.0000000000000253. PMID 33264160. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33264160/. Retrieved 2020-12-21. 
  30. ↑ Paradiso, S.; Robinson, R. G.; Arndt, S. (1996-12-01). "Self-reported aggressive behavior in patients with stroke". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 184 (12): 746–753. doi:10.1097/00005053-199612000-00005. PMID 8994458. 
  31. ↑ Pillmann, F.; Rohde, A.; Ullrich, S.; Draba, S.; Sannemüller, U.; Marneros, A. (1999-01-01). "Violence, criminal behavior, and the EEG: significance of left hemispheric focal abnormalities". The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 11 (4): 454–457. doi:10.1176/jnp.11.4.454. PMID 10570757. 
  32. ↑ Eslinger, Paul J.; Flaherty-Craig, Claire V.; Benton, Arthur L. (2004-06-01). "Developmental outcomes after early prefrontal cortex damage". Brain and Cognition 55 (1): 84–103. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00281-1. PMID 15134845. 
  33. ↑ Bechara, A.; Tranel, D.; Damasio, H. (2000-11-01). "Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions". Brain 123 (11): 2189–2202. doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2189. PMID 11050020. 
  34. ↑ Bechara, A.; Damasio, A. R.; Damasio, H.; Anderson, S. W. (1994-04-01). "Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex". Cognition 50 (1–3): 7–15. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3. PMID 8039375. 
  35. ↑ Blair, R. J.; Cipolotti, L. (2000-06-01). "Impaired social response reversal. A case of 'acquired sociopathy'". Brain 123 (6): 1122–1141. doi:10.1093/brain/123.6.1122. PMID 10825352. 
  36. ↑ Cushman, Fiery; Young, Liane; Hauser, Marc (2006-12-01). "The role of conscious reasoning and intuition in moral judgment: testing three principles of harm". Psychological Science 17 (12): 1082–1089. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01834.x. PMID 17201791. 
  37. ↑ Damasio, A. R.; Tranel, D.; Damasio, H. (1990-12-14). "Individuals with sociopathic behavior caused by frontal damage fail to respond autonomically to social stimuli". Behavioural Brain Research 41 (2): 81–94. doi:10.1016/0166-4328(90)90144-4. PMID 2288668. 
  38. ↑ Koenigs, Michael; Young, Liane; Adolphs, Ralph; Tranel, Daniel; Cushman, Fiery; Hauser, Marc; Damasio, Antonio (2007-04-19). "Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements". Nature 446 (7138): 908–911. doi:10.1038/nature05631. PMID 17377536. Bibcode: 2007Natur.446..908K. 
  39. ↑ Shamay-Tsoory, S. G.; Tomer, R.; Berger, B. D.; Goldsher, D.; Aharon-Peretz, J. (2005-03-01). "Impaired "affective theory of mind" is associated with right ventromedial prefrontal damage". Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology 18 (1): 55–67. doi:10.1097/01.wnn.0000152228.90129.99. PMID 15761277. 
  40. ↑ Tranel, Daniel; Bechara, Antoine; Denburg, Natalie L. (2002-09-01). "Asymmetric functional roles of right and left ventromedial prefrontal cortices in social conduct, decision-making, and emotional processing". Cortex 38 (4): 589–612. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70024-8. PMID 12465670. 
  41. ↑ Tranel, D. (1994-01-01). ""Acquired sociopathy": the development of sociopathic behavior following focal brain damage". Progress in Experimental Personality & Psychopathology Research: 285–311. PMID 8044207. 
  42. ↑ Darby, R. Ryan; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro (2017-02-22). "Moral Enhancement Using Non-invasive Brain Stimulation". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 11: 77. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00077. PMID 28275345. 
  43. ↑ Civai, Claudia; Miniussi, Carlo; Rumiati, Raffaella I. (2015-08-01). "Medial prefrontal cortex reacts to unfairness if this damages the self: a tDCS study". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (8): 1054–1060. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu154. PMID 25552567. 
  44. ↑ Nihonsugi, Tsuyoshi; Ihara, Aya; Haruno, Masahiko (2015-02-25). "Selective Increase of Intention-Based Economic Decisions by Noninvasive Brain Stimulation to the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex" (in en). Journal of Neuroscience 35 (8): 3412–3419. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3885-14.2015. PMID 25716841. 
  45. ↑ Dambacher, Franziska; Schuhmann, Teresa; Lobbestael, Jill; Arntz, Arnoud; Brugman, Suzanne; Sack, Alexander T. (2015-10-01). "Reducing proactive aggression through non-invasive brain stimulation". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (10): 1303–1309. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv018. PMID 25680991. 
  46. ↑ "Academic paper: Transcranial direct current stimulation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex increased pain empathy" (in en). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266380235. 
  47. ↑ Knoch, Daria; Nitsche, Michael A.; Fischbacher, Urs; Eisenegger, Christoph; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro; Fehr, Ernst (2008-09-01). "Studying the Neurobiology of Social Interaction with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation—The Example of Punishing Unfairness". Cerebral Cortex 18 (9): 1987–1990. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhm237. PMID 18158325. 
  48. ↑ Riva, Paolo; Lauro, Romero; J, Leonor; DeWall, C. Nathan; Chester, David S.; Bushman, Brad J. (2015-03-01). "Reducing aggressive responses to social exclusion using transcranial direct current stimulation". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10 (3): 352–356. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu053. PMID 24748546. 
  49. ↑ Raine, Adrian; Yang, Yaling (2017-04-06). "Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 1 (3): 203–213. doi:10.1093/scan/nsl033. PMID 18985107. 
  50. ↑ Yang, Yaling; Raine, Adrian (2009-11-30). "Prefrontal Structural and Functional Brain Imaging findings in Antisocial, Violent, and Psychopathic Individuals: A Meta-Analysis". Psychiatry Research 174 (2): 81–88. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.03.012. PMID 19833485. 
  51. ↑ Devinsky, O.; Morrell, M. J.; Vogt, B. A. (1995-02-01). "Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour". Brain 118 (1): 279–306. doi:10.1093/brain/118.1.279. PMID 7895011. 
  52. ↑ Danckert, J.; Maruff, P.; Ymer, C.; Kinsella, G.; Yucel, M.; de Graaff, S.; Currie, J. (2000-01-01). "Goal-directed selective attention and response competition monitoring: evidence from unilateral parietal and anterior cingulate lesions". Neuropsychology 14 (1): 16–28. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.14.1.16. PMID 10674795. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Burns, Jeffrey M.; Swerdlow, Russell H. (2003-03-01). "Right Orbitofrontal Tumor With Pedophilia Symptom and Constructional Apraxia Sign" (in en). Archives of Neurology 60 (3): 437–40. doi:10.1001/archneur.60.3.437. PMID 12633158. 
  54. ↑ Grafman, J.; Schwab, K.; Warden, D.; Pridgen, A.; Brown, H. R.; Salazar, A. M. (1996-05-01). "Frontal lobe injuries, violence, and aggression: a report of the Vietnam Head Injury Study". Neurology 46 (5): 1231–1238. doi:10.1212/WNL.46.5.1231. PMID 8628458. 
  55. ↑ R., Damasio, Antonio (2004-01-01). Descartes' error : emotion, reason and the human brain. Quill. ISBN 978-0380726479. OCLC 254107691. 
  56. ↑ "Article series : Nature Reviews Neuroscience" (in en). http://www.nature.com/nrn/series/neurosciencelaw/index.html. 
  57. ↑ Rusconi, Elena; Mitchener-Nissen, Timothy (2013-09-24). "Prospects of functional magnetic resonance imaging as lie detector". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 7: 594. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00594. PMID 24065912. 
  58. ↑ Jork), Vintage Books (Nowy (2014-01-01). The anatomy of violence : the biological roots of crime. Vintage Books. ISBN 9780307475619. OCLC 951424228. https://archive.org/details/anatomyofviolenc0000rain. 



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Philosophy:Neuromorality&oldid=3286909"