Physics:Battery storage power station

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Short description: Energy storage system using electrochemical secondary cells
Tehachapi Energy Storage Project, Tehachapi, California

A battery storage power station is a type of energy storage power station that uses a group of batteries to store electrical energy. Battery storage is the fastest responding dispatchable source of power on electric grids, and it is used to stabilise those grids, as battery storage can transition from standby to full power in under a second to deal with grid contingencies.[1]

Battery storage power stations are generally designed to be able to output at their full rated power for several hours. Battery storage can be used for short-term peak power[2] and ancillary services, such as providing operating reserve and frequency control to minimize the chance of power outages. They are often installed at, or close to, other active or disused power stations and may share the same grid connection to reduce costs. Since battery storage plants require no deliveries of fuel, are compact compared to generating stations and have no chimneys or large cooling systems, they can be rapidly installed and placed if necessary within urban areas, close to customer load.

As of 2021, the power and capacity of the largest individual battery storage power plants is an order of magnitude less than that of the largest pumped-storage power plants, the most common form of grid energy storage. For example, the Bath County Pumped Storage Station, the second largest in the world, can store 24GWh of electricity and dispatch 3GW while the first phase of Vistra Energy's Moss Landing Energy Storage Facility can store 1.2GWh and dispatch 300MW.[3] However, grid batteries do not have to be large, a large number of smaller ones can be widely deployed across a grid for greater redundancy and large overall capacity.

As of 2019, battery power storage is cheaper than open cycle gas turbine power for use up to two hours, and there was around 365 GWh of battery storage deployed worldwide, growing rapidly.[4] Levelized cost of storage (LCOS) has fallen rapidly, halving in two years to reach US$150 per MWh in 2020,[5][6][7] and further reduced to US$117 by 2023.[8] Additionally, annualized capital costs varies from battery chemistry used for storage, but annualized capital costs of $93/kWh can be realized with Lithium iron phosphate in 2020.

Construction

A rechargeable battery bank used in a data center
Lithium iron phosphate battery modules packaged in shipping containers installed at Beech Ridge Energy Storage System in West Virginia[9][10]

Battery storage power plants and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are comparable in technology and function. However, battery storage power plants are larger.

For safety and security, the actual batteries are housed in their own structures, like warehouses or containers. As with a UPS, one concern is that electrochemical energy is stored or emitted in the form of direct current (DC), while electric power networks are usually operated with alternating current (AC). For this reason, additional inverters are needed to connect the battery storage power plants to the high voltage network. This kind of power electronics include GTO thyristors, commonly used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission.

Various accumulator systems may be used depending on the power-to-energy ratio, the expected lifetime and the costs. In the 1980s, lead-acid batteries were used for the first battery-storage power plants. During the next few decades, nickel–cadmium and sodium–sulfur batteries were increasingly used.[11] Since 2010, more and more utility-scale battery storage plants rely on lithium-ion batteries, as a result of the fast decrease in the cost of this technology, caused by the electric automotive industry. Lithium-ion batteries are mainly used. A flow battery system has emerged, but lead-acid batteries are still used in small budget applications.[12]

Safety

Some batteries operating at high temperatures (sodium–sulfur battery) or using corrosive components are subject to calendar ageing, or failure even if not used. Other technologies suffer from cycle ageing, or deterioration caused by charge-discharge cycles. This deterioration is generally higher at high charging rates. These two types of aging cause a loss of performance (capacity or voltage decrease), overheating, and may eventually lead to critical failure (electrolyte leaks, fire, explosion).

Examples of the latter include a Tesla Megapack in Geelong which caught fire,[13][14] the fire and subsequent explosion of a battery farm in Arizona, and the fire at Moss Landing battery farm.[15] Concerns about possible fire and explosion of a battery module were also raised during residential protests against Cleve Hill solar farm in United Kingdom.[16] Battery fire in Illinois resulted in "thousands of residents" being evacuated, and there were 23 battery farm fires in South Korea over the period of two years. Battery fires may release a number of dangerous gases, including highly corrosive and toxic hydrogen fluoride.[17]

Some batteries can be maintained to prevent loss of performance due to aging. For example, non-sealed lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen from the aqueous electrolyte when overcharged. The water has to be refilled regularly to avoid damage to the battery; and, the inflammable gases have to be vented out to avoid explosion risks. However, this maintenance has a cost, and recent batteries such as Li-Ion, are designed to have a long lifespan without maintenance. Therefore, most of the current systems are composed of securely sealed battery packs, which are electronically monitored and replaced once their performance falls below a given threshold.

Sometimes battery storage power stations are built with flywheel storage power systems in order to conserve battery power.[18] Flywheels may handle rapid fluctuations better than older battery plants.[19]

Operating characteristics

Battery storage power plant at Schwerin (interior view 2014, modular rows of accumulators)

Since they do not have any mechanical parts, battery storage power plants offer extremely short control times and start times, as little as 10 ms.[citation needed] They can therefore help dampen the fast oscillations that occur when electrical power networks are operated close to their maximum capacity. These instabilities – voltage fluctuations with periods of as much as 30 seconds – can produce peak voltage swings of such amplitude that they can cause regional blackouts. A properly sized battery storage power plant can efficiently counteract these oscillations; therefore, applications are found primarily in those regions where electrical power systems are operated at full capacity, leading to a risk of instability.[citation needed] However, some batteries have insufficient control systems, failing during moderate disruptions they should have tolerated.[20] Batteries are also commonly used for peak shaving for periods of up to a few hours.[2]

Battery storage systems may be active on spot markets while providing systems services such as frequency stabilization.[21] Arbitrage is an attractive way to benefit from the operating characteristics of battery storages.

Storage plants can also be used in combination with an intermittent renewable energy source in stand-alone power systems.

Largest grid batteries

10 largest battery storage power plants by storage capacity
Name Commissioning date Energy (MWh) Power (MW) Duration (hours) Type Country Location/coords Refs
Vistra Moss Landing battery 2021 Q2 — 2023 Q3 3000 750 4 Lithium-ion United States Moss Landing, California [22][23][24]
Crimson October 2022 1400 350 4 Lithium-ion United States Riverside County, California [25]
Kenhardt December 2023 1140 225 5 South Africa Northern Cape [26]
Oberon November 2023 1000 250 4 Lithium-ion United States Riverside County, California [27][28]
Desert Sunlight August 2022 920 230 4 Lithium-ion United States Riverside County, California [29]
Manatee Energy Storage December 2021 900 409 2.25 Lithium-ion United States Southfork Solar, Florida [30][31][32][33]
Diablo Energy Storage 2022 800 200 4 Lithium-ion United States Contra Costa County, California [34]
Moss Landing Elkhorn battery 2022 730 182.5 4 Lithium-ion United States Moss Landing [35][36]
Kapolei January 2024 565 185 3 Lithium-iron phosphate United States Oʻahu, Hawaii [37]
Slate, California March 2022 561 140 4 Lithium-ion United States Kings County, California [38]

Under construction

10 largest battery power plants under construction
Name Planned commissioning date Energy (MWh) Power (MW) Duration (hours) Type Country Refs
Edwards Sanborn 2022-2024 2165 Lithium-ion United States [39][40][41]
Scatter Wash 2025 1020 255 4 Lithium-ion Arizona, USA [42]
Oasis de Atacama 2024 1100 (4100 by 2026) Lithium-ion Chile [43][44]
Waratah Origin 2025 1915 909 2 Lithium-ion Australia [45][46][47]
Melton Melbourne Renewable Energy Hub (MRHE) 2026 1600 800 2 Lithium-ion Australia [48]

Planned

10 largest battery power plants planned
Name Planned commissioning date Energy (MWh) Power (MW) Duration (hours) Type Country Refs
Ravenswood Energy Storage Project 2024 2528 316 8 Lithium-ion United States [49][50]
Calpine Menifee 680 United States [51]
InterGen DP World London Gateway 2024 640 320 2 Lithium-ion United Kingdom [52]
Andes Solar IV 735 147 5 Lithium-ion Chile [53]
Northern Gilboa 3200 800 4 Israel [54][55]
CEP Energy, Kurri Kurri project 4800 1200 4 Lithium-ion Australia [56][57]
Normanton 1000 500 2 Lithium-ion UK [58]
Green Turtle 2400 600 4 Belgium [59]
Energy Australia Jeeralang big battery 2026 1400 350 4 Lithium-ion Australia [60]
Neoen Wallerawang Great Western Battery 1000 500 4 Lithium-ion Australia [61]

Market development and deployment

While the market for grid batteries is small compared to the other major form of grid storage, pumped hydroelectricity, it is growing very fast. For example, in the United States, the market for storage power plants in 2015 increased by 243% compared to 2014.[62] The 2021 price of a 60MW / 240MWh (4-hour) battery installation in the United States was US$379/usable kWh, or US$292/nameplate kWh, a 13% drop from 2020.[63][64]

In 2010, the United States had 59 MW of battery storage capacity from 7 battery power plants. This increased to 49 plants comprising 351 MW of capacity in 2015. In 2018, the capacity was 869 MW from 125 plants, capable of storing a maximum of 1,236 MWh of generated electricity. By the end of 2020, the battery storage capacity reached 1,756 MW.[65][66] At the end of 2021, the capacity grew to 4,588 MW.[67] In 2022, US capacity doubled to 9 GW / 25 GWh.[68]

As of May 2021, 1.3 GW of battery storage was operating in the United Kingdom, with 16 GW of projects in the pipeline potentially deployable over the next few years.[69] In 2022, UK capacity grew by 800 MWh, ending at 2.4 GW / 2.6 GWh.[70] Europe added 1.9 GW, with several more projects planned.[71]

In 2020, China added 1,557 MW to its battery storage capacity, while storage facilities for photovoltaics projects accounting for 27% of the capacity,[72] to the total 3,269 MW of electrochemical energy storage capacity.[73]

There is a lot of movement in the market, for example, some developers are building storage systems from old batteries of electric cars, where costs can probably be halved compared to conventional systems from new batteries.[74]

See also

  • List of energy storage power plants

References

  1. ↑ Denholm, Paul; Mai, Trieu; Kenyon, Rick Wallace; Kroposki, Ben; O'Malley, Mark (2020). Inertia and the Power Grid: A Guide Without the Spin (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Page 30
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Spector, Julian (2019-07-01). "What Comes Next After Batteries Replace Gas Peakers?". https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-clean-power-outlook-what-comes-after-shorter-duration-batteries. 
  3. ↑ "'Manufacturer reveals involvement in world's biggest battery energy storage system so far'". 17 June 2021. https://www.energy-storage.news/news/manufacturer-reveals-involvement-in-worlds-biggest-battery-energy-storage-s. 
  4. ↑ "Behind the numbers: The rapidly falling LCOE of battery storage". 6 May 2020. https://www.energy-storage.news/blogs/behind-the-numbers-the-rapidly-falling-lcoe-of-battery-storage. 
  5. ↑ "BloombergNEF: 'Already cheaper to install new-build battery storage than peaking plants'". 30 April 2020. https://www.energy-storage.news/news/bloombergnef-lcoe-of-battery-storage-has-fallen-faster-than-solar-or-wind-i. 
  6. ↑ "Grid Energy Storage Technology Cost and Performance Assessment". https://www.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/media/file/Final%20-%20ESGC%20Cost%20Performance%20Report%2012-11-2020.pdf. 
  7. ↑ "Energy Storage Cost and Performance Database". https://www.pnnl.gov/ESGC-cost-performance. 
  8. ↑ "Annual Energy Outlook 2023 - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/index.php. 
  9. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (2 April 2020). "Illinois, Virginia wind farms add 72MWh of battery storage for PJM frequency regulation market". Energy Storage News. https://www.energy-storage.news/illionis-virginia-wind-farms-add-72mwh-of-battery-storage-for-pjm-frequency-regulation-market/. 
  10. ↑ Jacobo, Jonathan Tourino (12 April 2022). "Wisconsin regulators approve another Invenergy solar-plus-storage plant". Energy Storage News. https://www.energy-storage.news/wisconsin-regulators-approve-another-invenergy-solar-plus-storage-plant/. 
  11. ↑ Batteries for Large-Scale Stationary Electrical Energy Storage (PDF; 826 kB), The Electrochemical Society Interface, 2010, (engl.)
  12. ↑ Große Batteriespeicher erobern die Stromnetze. pv-magazine.de. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
  13. ↑ "Large battery fire in Moorabool" (in en). http://www.frv.vic.gov.au/large-battery-fire-moorabool. 
  14. ↑ "Fire breaks out at giant battery project near Geelong" (in en-AU). 2021-07-30. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-30/tesla-battery-fire-moorabool-geelong/100337488. 
  15. ↑ "The world's largest battery facility has gone dormant in Moss Landing, with no timetable on return.". https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/the-world-s-largest-battery-facility-has-gone-dormant-in-moss-landing-with-no-timetable/article_3c30ab46-1657-11ec-b44b-5ffbeeab437d.html. 
  16. ↑ Southworth, Phoebe (2020-05-10). "UK's largest solar farm could cause explosion on scale of small nuclear bomb, residents complain" (in en-GB). The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/05/10/worlds-largest-solar-farm-could-cause-explosion-scale-small/. 
  17. ↑ "UK's giant battery 'farms' spark fears of explosions even worse than the Beirut port blast" (in en-GB). 2021-07-11. https://www.thegwpf.com/net-zero-disaster-warning-uks-giant-battery-farms-spark-fears-of-explosions-even-worse-than-the-beirut-port-blast/. 
  18. ↑ utilitydive.com, PG&E contracts for 75 MW of energy storage on its way to 580 MW of capacity. Dec. 4, 2015
  19. ↑ zdf-video, ZDF - Planet E - Schwungradspeicher. 27 February 2013
  20. ↑ "Battery storage failures highlight reliability challenges of inverter-based resources: report". 4 October 2023. https://www.utilitydive.com/news/NERC-batteries-inverter-based-resource-faults/695611/. 
  21. ↑ Nitsch, Felix; Deissenroth-Uhrig, Marc; Schimeczek, Christoph; Bertsch, Valentin (2021-09-15). "Economic evaluation of battery storage systems bidding on day-ahead and automatic frequency restoration reserves markets" (in en). Applied Energy 298: 117267. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117267. ISSN 0306-2619. https://zenodo.org/records/6322855/files/APEN_Nitsch2021.pdf. 
  22. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (20 August 2021). "Expansion complete at world's biggest battery storage system in California". https://www.energy-storage.news/expansion-complete-at-worlds-biggest-battery-storage-system-in-california/. 
  23. ↑ "World's biggest battery storage system comes back online after months of shutdown". 12 July 2022. https://www.energy-storage.news/worlds-biggest-battery-storage-system-comes-back-online-after-months-of-shutdown/. 
  24. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (2 August 2023). "Moss Landing: World's biggest battery storage project is now 3GWh capacity". https://www.energy-storage.news/moss-landing-worlds-biggest-battery-storage-project-is-now-3gwh-capacity/. 
  25. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (18 October 2022). "Crimson Energy Storage 350MW/1,400MWh battery storage plant comes online in California". https://www.energy-storage.news/crimson-energy-storage-350mw-1400mwh-battery-storage-plant-comes-online-in-california/. 
  26. ↑ Burger, Schalk (11 December 2023). "Scatec's Kenhardt project starts producing electricity for the national grid". https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/scatecs-kenhardt-project-starts-producing-electricity-for-the-national-grid-2023-12-11. 
  27. ↑ "Intersect Power's Oberon Solar + Storage project begins commercial operation". 15 November 2023. https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/intersect-powers-oberon-solar-storage-project-begins-commercial-operation/. 
  28. ↑ "Oberon solar with project of 500 MW in California is operational". 16 November 2023. https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/californias-500-mw-oberon-solar-with-storage-project-sets-off-operation. 
  29. ↑ Murray, Cameron (17 August 2022). "230MW BESS comes online at Bureau of Land Management site in California". https://www.energy-storage.news/230mw-bess-comes-online-at-bureau-of-land-management-site-in-california/. 
  30. ↑ "FPL Will Build World's Largest Battery Storage System". 3 April 2019. https://www.powermag.com/fpl-will-build-worlds-largest-battery-storage-system/. 
  31. ↑ Spector, Julian (3 September 2019). "The Biggest Batteries Coming Soon to a Grid Near You". https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/the-biggest-batteries-coming-soon-to-a-grid-near-you. 
  32. ↑ "World's biggest solar-charged battery storage system unveiled in Florida". 15 December 2021. https://www.energy-storage.news/worlds-biggest-solar-charged-battery-storage-system-unveiled-in-florida/. 
  33. ↑ Erickson, Amber (Jan 28, 2015). "Florida Power and Light announces plan for Manatee County Solar Center". https://www.mysuncoast.com/news/florida-power-and-light-announces-plan-for-manatee-county-solar/article_cbe62b70-a6d9-11e4-947a-737138e9c5bd.html. 
  34. ↑ "US installs 5GWh of battery storage in H1 2022 but overall clean power deployments fall" (in en-US). 2022-07-27. https://www.energy-storage.news/us-installs-5gwh-of-battery-storage-in-h1-2022-but-overall-clean-power-deployments-fall/. 
  35. ↑ Sylvia, Tim (29 July 2020). "PG&E, Tesla begin construction on one of the world's largest batteries". https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2020/07/29/pge-tesla-begin-construction-on-the-worlds-largest-battery-for-now/. 
  36. ↑ "PG&E commissions 182.5MW/730MWh Tesla BESS at Moss Landing". 19 April 2022. https://www.energy-storage.news/pge-commissions-182-5mw-730mwh-tesla-bess-at-moss-landing/. 
  37. ↑ Pickerel, Kelly (11 January 2024). "565-MWh storage project helps to replace coal plant in Hawaii". https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2024/01/565-mwh-tesla-storage-project-helps-to-replace-coal-plant-in-hawaii/. 
  38. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (16 March 2022). "Goldman Sachs brings online California solar-plus-storage project with 561MWh of batteries". https://www.energy-storage.news/goldman-sachs-brings-online-california-solar-plus-storage-project-slate/. 
  39. ↑ "AFIMSC collaboration with local community, industry brings solar power to Edwards AFB". 3 February 2023. https://www.afimsc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3286790/afimsc-collaboration-with-local-community-industry-brings-solar-power-to-edward/. 
  40. ↑ Murray, Cameron (20 September 2022). "Terra-Gen closes US$1 billion financing for second phase of world's largest solar-plus-storage project". https://www.energy-storage.news/terra-gen-closes-us1-billion-financing-for-second-phase-of-co-located-3-2gwh-battery-storage-in-california-edwards-sanborn/. 
  41. ↑ Schulte, Erin (28 September 2023). "U.S. Battery Storage Had a Record Quarter. Here's Why It Could Have—and Should Have—Been Much Better". https://insideclimatenews.org/news/28092023/inside-clean-energy-battery-storage-growth-record/. "Several hundred megawatts are in phases that are already operational" 
  42. ↑ Murray, Cameron (19 January 2024). "Strata breaks ground on 1GWh Arizona BESS". https://www.energy-storage.news/strata-breaks-ground-on-1gwh-arizona-bess/. "$500 million" 
  43. ↑ "BYD to supply 1.1 GWh of batteries for 'world's largest' BESS project in Chile" (in en-gb). 18 January 2024. https://etn.news/energy-storage/byd-supply-battery-energy-storage-grenergy-chile-project. 
  44. ↑ Sanderson, Cosmo (21 November 2023). "Chilean desert to host 'world's largest' energy storage project" (in en). https://www.rechargenews.com/energy-transition/chilean-desert-to-host-world-s-largest-energy-storage-project/2-1-1558097. "already started construction" 
  45. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (12 January 2021). "Coal power plant site in Australia could host 700MW / 2,800MWh battery energy storage project". Energy Storage News. https://www.energy-storage.news/news/coal-power-plant-site-in-australia-could-host-700mw-2800mwh-battery-energy. 
  46. ↑ "'Super Battery' first to benefit from New South Wales government's A$1.2 billion spending pledge". 10 June 2022. https://www.energy-storage.news/super-battery-first-to-benefit-from-new-south-wales-governments-a1-2-billion-spending-pledge/. 
  47. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (18 November 2022). "Powin begins work on 1.9GWh Australian 'Super Battery' for BlackRock-owned developer". https://www.energy-storage.news/powin-begins-work-on-1-9gwh-australian-super-battery-for-blackrock-owned-developer/. 
  48. ↑ Vorrath, Sophie (30 November 2023). "SEC makes first investment in “one of world's biggest” batteries in Melbourne" (in en-AU). https://reneweconomy.com.au/sec-makes-first-investment-in-one-of-worlds-biggest-batteries-in-melbourne/. "construction officially began on Thursday" 
  49. ↑ "New York City trades gas plant for the world's largest battery". 18 October 2019. https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2019/10/18/new-york-city-trading-gas-plants-for-worlds-largest-battery/. 
  50. ↑ "Lacking contract, LS Power delays major battery storage station in NY" (in en-us). https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/lacking-contract-ls-power-delays-major-battery-storage-station-in-ny-62467197. 
  51. ↑ "Calpine bags debt for 680-MW battery complex in California". 15 January 2024. https://renewablesnow.com/news/calpine-bags-debt-for-680-mw-battery-complex-in-california-845606/. 
  52. ↑ Lempriere, Molly (30 November 2020). "UK's largest battery storage project at 640MWh gets go ahead from government". https://www.energy-storage.news/news/uks-largest-battery-storage-project-at-320mw-gets-go-ahead-from-government. 
  53. ↑ Directors, Hydro Review Content (2022-08-12). "Report lists Chile's top five generators by capacity, projects under construction" (in en-US). https://www.hydroreview.com/business-finance/report-lists-chiles-top-five-generators-by-capacity-projects-under-construction/. 
  54. ↑ Proctor, Darrell (2023-05-03). "Israel Adding Energy Storage to Support Grid Integration for Renewables" (in en-US). https://www.powermag.com/israel-adding-energy-storage-to-support-grid-integration-for-renewables/. 
  55. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (2023-05-03). "Israeli government leads 800MW/3,200MWh BESS buildout, with energy storage strategy on the way" (in en-US). https://www.energy-storage.news/israeli-government-leads-800mw-3200mwh-bess-buildout-with-energy-storage-strategy-on-the-way/. 
  56. ↑ "World's biggest battery with 1,200MW capacity set to be built in NSW Hunter Valley". 5 February 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/feb/05/worlds-biggest-battery-with-1200mw-capacity-set-to-be-built-in-nsw-hunter-valley-australia. 
  57. ↑ "World's first GW-scale battery project unveiled in Australia in snub to gas-fixated government". 5 February 2021. https://www.rechargenews.com/technology/worlds-first-gw-scale-battery-project-unveiled-in-australia-in-snub-to-gas-fixated-government/2-1-958227. 
  58. ↑ "Exagen gets nod for 500 MW / 1 GWh battery in Leicestershire, UK" (in en-gb). 15 January 2024. https://etn.news/buzz/exagen-500mw-battery-leicestershire-uk. 
  59. ↑ "Giga Storage announces 'Green Turtle' 600 MW/ 2,400 MWh BESS project in Belgium" (in en-gb). 17 January 2024. https://etn.news/buzz/giga-storage-green-turtle-battery-energy-storage-belgium. 
  60. ↑ Parkinson, Giles (10 March 2021). "Australia's big fossil fuel generators are being replaced by big batteries". Renew Economy. https://reneweconomy.com.au/australias-big-fossil-fuel-generators-are-being-replaced-by-big-batteries/. 
  61. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (18 January 2021). "'Great Western Battery' 1,000MWh project proposed to aid reliability in Australia's post-coal age". Energy Storage News. https://www.energy-storage.news/news/great-western-battery-1000mwh-project-proposed-to-aid-reliability-in-austra. 
  62. ↑ USA: Speichermarkt wächst um 243 Prozent im Jahr 2015. pv-magazine.de. retrieved 11 March 2016.
  63. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (4 November 2021). "NREL: Cost of solar, energy storage in US fell across all segments from 2020 to 2021". https://www.pv-tech.org/nrel-cost-of-solar-energy-storage-in-us-fell-across-all-segments-from-2020-to-2021/. 
  64. ↑ "U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System and Energy Storage Cost Benchmarks: Q1 2021". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. U.S. Department of Energy. November 2021. p. 36. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/80694.pdf. 
  65. ↑ "Battery Storage in the United States: An Update on Market Trends". U.S. Energy Information Administration. July 15, 2020. https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/electricity/batterystorage/. 
  66. ↑ "Wind Industry Closes Record 2020 With Strongest Quarter Ever". American Clean Power Association. February 4, 2021. https://cleanpower.org/news/wind-industry-closes-record-2020-with-strongest-quarter-ever/. 
  67. ↑ "U.S. surpasses 200 gigawatts of total clean power capacity, but the pace of deployment has slowed according to ACP 4Q report". American Clean Power Association. February 15, 2022. https://cleanpower.org/news/u-s-surpasses-200-gigawatts-of-total-clean-power-capacity-but-the-pace-of-deployment-has-slowed-according-to-acp-4q-report/. 
  68. ↑ Colthorpe, Andy (28 February 2023). "US installed grid-scale battery storage capacity reached 9GW/25GWh in 'record-breaking' 2022". https://www.energy-storage.news/us-installed-grid-scale-battery-storage-capacity-reached-9gw-25gwh-in-record-breaking-2022/. 
  69. ↑ McCorkindale, Mollie (19 May 2021). "Top ten UK battery storage projects forecast for 2021 completion". https://www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/blogs/top_ten_uk_battery_storage_projects_forecast_for_2021_completion. 
  70. ↑ McCorkindale, Mollie (1 February 2023). "800MWh of utility-scale energy storage capacity added in the UK during 2022". https://www.energy-storage.news/800mwh-of-utility-scale-energy-storage-capacity-added-in-the-uk-during-2022/. 
  71. ↑ Murray, Cameron (21 March 2023). "Europe deployed 1.9GW of battery storage in 2022, 3.7GW expected in 2023 - LCP Delta". https://www.energy-storage.news/europe-deployed-1-9gw-of-battery-storage-in-2022-3-7gw-expected-in-2023-lcp-delta/. 
  72. ↑ Yuki (2021-07-05). ""First-of-its-Kind" Energy Storage Tech Fest -China Clean Energy Syndicate" (in en-US). https://energyiceberg.com/first-of-its-kind-energy-storage-tech-fest-china-clean-energy-syndicate/. 
  73. ↑ Energy Storage Industry White Paper 2021. China Energy Storage Alliance. 2021. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55826ab6e4b0a6d2b0f53e3d/t/60d2fff40aec596dc9e5cd65/1624440841870/CNESA+White+Paper+2021-PDF. 
  74. ↑ "Electric vehicles, second life batteries, and their effect on the power sector | McKinsey". https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/second-life-ev-batteries-the-newest-value-pool-in-energy-storage. 



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