Biology:Mushroom

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Short description: Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus
Culinary mushrooms in a diversity of shapes and colors

File:Growing oyster mushrooms - timelapse.webm A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.[1]

The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella) on the underside of the cap. "Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems, therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota. The gills produce microscopic spores which help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.

Forms deviating from the standard morphology usually have more specific names, such as "bolete", "puffball", "stinkhorn", and "morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "agarics" in reference to their similarity to Agaricus or their order Agaricales. By extension, the term "mushroom" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the thallus (called mycelium) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself.

Etymology

Amanita muscaria, the most easily recognised "toadstool", is frequently depicted in fairy stories and on greeting cards. It is often associated with gnomes.[2]

The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns were used.[3]

The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word mousseron in reference to moss (mousse). Delineation between edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.[4][5] The word toadstool appeared first in 14th century England as a reference for a "stool" for toads, possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus.[6]

Identification

Morphological characteristics of the caps of mushrooms
A macro of a polypore mushroom
Maitake, a polypore mushroom

Identifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their macroscopic structure. Most are basidiomycetes and gilled. Their spores, called basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a spore print, is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red.[7]

While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to medieval times and the Victorian era, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and allergens. Chemical tests are also used for some genera.[8]

In general, identification to genus can often be accomplished in the field using a local field guide. Identification to species, however, requires more effort. A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on lamella edges for colored spored prints.

Classification

Main pages: Biology:Sporocarp (fungi), Biology:Basidiocarp, and Biology:Ascocarp
A mushroom (probably Russula brevipes) parasitized by Hypomyces lactifluorum resulting in a "lobster mushroom"

Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order Agaricales, whose type genus is Agaricus and type species is the field mushroom, Agaricus campestris. However in modern molecularly defined classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class Agaricomycetes. For example, chanterelles are in the Cantharellales, false chanterelles such as Gomphus are in the Gomphales, milk-cap mushrooms (Lactarius, Lactifluus) and russulas (Russula), as well as Lentinellus, are in the Russulales, while the tough, leathery genera Lentinus and Panus are among the Polyporales, but Neolentinus is in the Gloeophyllales, and the little pin-mushroom genus, Rickenella, along with similar genera, are in the Hymenochaetales.

Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common fairy-ring mushroom, shiitake, enoki, oyster mushrooms, fly agarics and other Amanitas, magic mushrooms like species of Psilocybe, paddy straw mushrooms, shaggy manes, etc.

An atypical mushroom is the lobster mushroom, which is a fruitbody of a Russula or Lactarius mushroom that has been deformed by the parasitic fungus Hypomyces lactifluorum. This gives the affected mushroom an unusual shape and red color that resembles that of a boiled lobster.[9]

Zwam, inktzwam.jpg

Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called boletes), others have spines, such as the hedgehog mushroom and other tooth fungi, and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for polypores, puffballs, jelly fungi, coral fungi, bracket fungi, stinkhorns, and cup fungi. Thus, the term is more one of common application to macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described.[10]

Morphology

Amanita jacksonii buttons emerging from their universal veils
The blue gills of Lactarius indigo, a milk-cap mushroom

A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the substrate. It is formed within the mycelium, the mass of threadlike hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or volva, at the base of the stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the partial veil, covers the bladelike gills that bear spores. As the cap expands the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or annulus, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of Amanita, collar-like as in many species of Lepiota, or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus Cortinarius. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus.[11]

The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center or lateral, as in species of Pleurotus and Panus. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets. Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms including truffles, jellies, earthstars, and bird's nests usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts.

The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera Agaricus, Amanita, Lepiota and Pluteus, among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera Omphalotus and Pleurotus. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.[12]

Microscopic features

Morchella elata asci viewed with phase contrast microscopy

A hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called asci, which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The Discomycetes, which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of cup fungi or within the pits of morels. The Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called perithecia, within which the asci develop.[13]

In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend from club-shaped cells called a basidia. The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns. Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.[13]

The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to chemical tests often can be the crux of an identification. A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when the spore germinates.[13]

Growth

Agaricus bitorquis mushroom emerging through asphalt concrete in summer

Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the English language including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids.[14][15][16][17]

The cultivated mushroom, as well as the common field mushroom, initially form a minute fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its mycelium and expand, mainly by inflating preformed cells that took several days to form in the primordia.[citation needed]

Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like Parasola plicatilis (formerly Coprinus plicatlis), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.[18] The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the thatch and after heavy rainfall or in dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They "mushroom" to full size.[citation needed]

Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting hyphae. For example, Pleurotus nebrodensis grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now critically endangered.[19]

Yellow flower pot mushrooms (Leucocoprinus birnbaumii) at various states of development

Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying mycelium can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of Armillaria solidipes (formerly known as Armillaria ostoyae) in Malheur National Forest in the United States is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated 2,200 acres (8.9 km2).[20] Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates.[21]

Nutrition

Mushrooms (brown, Italian)
or Crimini (raw)
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy94 kJ (22 kcal)
4.3 g
Dietary fiber0.6 g
0.1 g
2.5 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)
9%
0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
42%
0.5 mg
Niacin (B3)
25%
3.8 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
30%
1.5 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.11 mg
Folate (B9)
6%
25 μg
Vitamin C
0%
0 mg
Vitamin D
1%
3 IU
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
2%
18 mg
Iron
3%
0.4 mg
Magnesium
3%
9 mg
Manganese
7%
0.142 mg
Phosphorus
17%
120 mg
Potassium
10%
448 mg
Sodium
0%
6 mg
Zinc
12%
1.1 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water92.1 g
Selenium26 ug
Copper0.5 mg
Vitamin D (UV exposed)1276 IU
Full Link to USDA Food Data Central entry; (exposed to UV light)
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Raw brown mushrooms are 92% water, 4% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat. In a 100 grams (3.5 ounces) amount, raw mushrooms provide 22 calories and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of B vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin and pantothenic acid, selenium (37% DV) and copper (25% DV), and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of phosphorus, zinc and potassium (table). They have minimal or no vitamin C and sodium content.

Vitamin D

The vitamin D content of a mushroom depends on postharvest handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The US Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D.[22] When exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, even after harvesting,[23] ergosterol in mushrooms is converted to vitamin D2,[24] a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the functional food grocery market.[25][26] In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food.[25]

Human use

Further information: Biology:Ethnomycology

Edible mushrooms

Main pages: Biology:Edible mushroom, Biology:Mushroom hunting, and Biology:Fungiculture
Agaricus bisporus, one of the most widely cultivated and consumed mushrooms
Ferula mushroom in Bingöl, Turkey . This is an edible type of mushroom.

Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and Japanese). Humans have valued them as food since antiquity.[27]

Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets have been commercially grown on mushroom farms. The most common of these, Agaricus bisporus, is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of A. bisporus are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species available at many grocers include Hericium erinaceus, shiitake, maitake (hen-of-the-woods), Pleurotus, and enoki. In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers.[28]

China is a major edible mushroom producer.[29] The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around 2.7 kilograms (6.0 lb) of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4 billion people.[30] In 2014, Poland was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated 194,000 tonnes (191,000 long tons; 214,000 short tons) annually.[31]

Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists,[32] and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply "mushrooming". Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthmatic response to severe anaphylactic shock.[33][34] Even the cultivated A. bisporus contains small amounts of hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine (a mycotoxin and carcinogen).[35] However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.[36]

A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten.[37]

Toxic mushrooms

Main page: Medicine:Mushroom poisoning
Young Amanita phalloides "death cap" mushrooms, with a matchbox for size comparison

Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continued to be studied.[38][39]

Psychoactive mushrooms

Psilocybe zapotecorum, a hallucinogenic mushroom

Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the velada ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the shaman or curandera (priest-healer).[40]

Psilocybin mushrooms, also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or "'shrooms", they are openly available in smart shops in many parts of the world, or on the black market in those countries which have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported to facilitate profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.[41]

There are over 100 psychoactive mushroom species of genus Psilocybe native to regions all around the world.[42]

Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as Psilocybe cubensis, is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster and migraine headaches.[43] A double-blind study, done by Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety. However the anxiety went away after a short period of time.[44] Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes.[45]

A few species in the genus Amanita, most recognizably A. muscaria, but also A. pantherina, among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of Amanitas contains no amatoxins or phallotoxins, and as such are not hepatoxic, though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid. The Amanita intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative-hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses.

Folk medicine

Ganoderma lingzhi

Some mushrooms are used in folk medicine.[46] In a few countries, extracts, such as polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan, are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies,[47][48][46] but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed.[46][49] Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration, regard such use as a dietary supplement, which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a prescription drug.[46]

Other uses

A tinder fungus, Fomes fomentarius

Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.[50]

Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi).

Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water).[51]

There is an ongoing research in the field of genetic engineering aimed towards creation of the enhanced qualities of mushrooms for such domains as nutritional value enhancement, as well as medical use.[52]

Gallery

  • Psychotropic mushroom Amanita muscaria, commonly known as "fly agaric"

  • Agaricus bisporus mushroom is a cultivated edible mushroom for foods and has many names such as "champignon", " button mushroom", "white mushroom", and " portobello"

  • Boletus edulis, also known as "cep", is an edible wild bolete found in Europe

  • Common puffball (Lycoperdon perlatum) has a glebal hymenium; the interior is white when it is young, but as it matures, the interior becomes brown containing spores

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Definition of TOADSTOOL". https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toadstool. 
  2. ↑ Harding, Patrick (2008). Mushroom Miscellany. HarperCollins. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-00-728464-1. 
  3. ↑ Ramsbottom J. (1954). Mushrooms & Toadstools: a study of the activities of fungi. London: Collins. 
  4. ↑ Hay, William Deslisle (1887). An Elementary Text-Book of British Fungi. London, S. Sonnenschein, Lowrey. pp. 6–7. https://archive.org/stream/elementarytextbo00hayw#page/n5/mode/2up. 
  5. ↑ Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms Demystified, A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Ten Speed Press. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5. https://archive.org/details/mushroomsdemysti00aror_0/page/1. 
  6. ↑ "Toadstool". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper, Inc.. 2021. https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=toadstool. 
  7. ↑ VNR Color Dictionary of Mushrooms. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1982. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-442-21998-7. 
  8. ↑ Ammirati et al., pp. 40–41.
  9. ↑ Volk T. (2001). "Hypomyces lactifluorum, the lobster mushroom". Fungus of the Month. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, Department of Biology. http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/aug2001.html. 
  10. ↑ Mushrooms: Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-8493-1043-0. 
  11. ↑ Stuntz et al., pp. 12–13.
  12. ↑ Stuntz et al., pp. 28–29.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Ammirati et al., pp. 25–34.
  14. ↑ Falconer, William (2009). Mushrooms: How to Grow Them - A Practical Treatise on Mushroom Culture for Profit and Pleasure (2nd ed.). Read Books. ISBN 9781444678925. 
  15. ↑ DLong (2019-08-29). "How Mushrooms are Grown" (in en-CA). https://canadianfoodfocus.org/on-the-farm/how-mushrooms-are-grown/. 
  16. ↑ Sayner, Adam (2022-02-23). "How Long Does It Take To Grow Mushrooms? All Questions Answered" (in en-GB). https://grocycle.com/how-long-does-it-take-to-grow-mushrooms/. 
  17. ↑ Gordon, Tom (2021). A Complete Mushroom Cultivation Guide on How to Grow Gourmet Mushrooms and Identify Wild Common Mushrooms and Other Fungi for Beginners. Independently Published. ISBN 9798702942391. 
  18. ↑ Nelson N. (2006-08-13). "Parasola plicatilis". http://collectivesource.com/fungi/newpages/Coprinus_plicatilis.html. 
  19. ↑ Venturella, G. (2016). "Pleurotus nebrodensis ssp. nebrodensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T61597A102952148. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T61597A102952148.en. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61597/102952148. Retrieved 18 November 2021. 
  20. ↑ "A Humongous Fungus Among Us", Dinosaur in a Haystack, Harvard University Press, 1995, pp. 335–343, doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674063426.c38, ISBN 978-0-674-06342-6 
  21. ↑ Dodge, S.R.. "And the Humongous Fungus Race Continues". US Forest Service: Pacific Northwest Research Station. http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/news/fungus.htm. 
  22. ↑ Haytowitz DB (2009). "Vitamin D in mushrooms". Nutrient Data Laboratory, US Department of Agriculture. https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400525/Articles/AICR09_Mushroom_VitD.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Kalaras, M. D.; Beelman, R. B.; Elias, R. J. (2012). "Effects of postharvest pulsed UV light treatment of white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) on vitamin D2 content and quality attributes". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60 (1): 220–5. doi:10.1021/jf203825e. PMID 22132934. 
  24. ↑ "Vitamin D2 formation and bioavailability from Agaricus bisporus button mushrooms treated with ultraviolet irradiation". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (8): 3351–5. 2009. doi:10.1021/jf803908q. PMID 19281276. http://kcms.daegu.ac.kr/user/chsong/pdf/i-53.pdf. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Simon, R. R.; Borzelleca, J. F.; Deluca, H. F.; Weaver, C. M. (2013). "Safety assessment of the post-harvest treatment of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) using ultraviolet light". Food and Chemical Toxicology 56: 278–89. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2013.02.009. PMID 23485617. 
  26. ↑ Cardwell, Glenn; Bornman, Janet F.; James, Anthony P.; Black, Lucinda J. (2018-10-13). "A Review of Mushrooms as a Potential Source of Dietary Vitamin D". Nutrients 10 (10): 1498. doi:10.3390/nu10101498. ISSN 2072-6643. PMID 30322118. 
  27. ↑ Valverde, M. E.; Hernández-Pérez, T.; Paredes-López, O. (2015). "Edible Mushrooms: Improving Human Health and Promoting Quality Life". International Journal of Microbiology 2015: 376387. doi:10.1155/2015/376387. PMID 25685150. 
  28. ↑ Marshall, Elaine and Nair, N. G. (2009) Making Money by growing Mushrooms . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
  29. ↑ "Production of Cultivated Edible Mushroom in China With Emphasis on Lentinula edodes - isms.biz" (in en-US). isms.biz. http://www.isms.biz/articles/production-of-cultivated-edible-mushroom-in-china-with-emphasis-on-lentinula-edodes/. 
  30. ↑ Hall et al., p. 25.
  31. ↑ "Poland: The world's largest mushroom exporter". Fresh Plaza. 8 April 2015. http://www.freshplaza.com/article/137929/Poland-The-worlds-largest-mushroom-exporter. 
  32. ↑ Texas Mushrooms: a Field Guide. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. 1992. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-292-75125-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=HRtfvVigMmsC&pg=PA37. 
  33. ↑ Hall et al., pp. 22–24.
  34. ↑ Ammirati et al., pp. 81–83.
  35. ↑ Schulzova, V; Hajslova, J; Peroutka, R; Hlavasek, J; Gry, J; Andersson, H.C. (2009). "Agaritine content of 53 Agaricus species collected from nature". Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 26 (1): 82–93. doi:10.1080/02652030802039903. PMID 19680875. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00577390/file/PEER_stage2_10.1080%252F02652030802039903.pdf. Retrieved 2019-06-29. 
  36. ↑ Siegered, AA, ed (January 1998). "Spore Prints #338". Bulletin of the Puget Sound Mycological Society. http://www.psms.org/sporeprints/sp338.html. 
  37. ↑ "Preventing Poisonings - Bay Area Mycological Society". https://www.bayareamushrooms.org/poisonings/preventing_poisonings.html. 
  38. ↑ "Belarus exports radioactive mushrooms, April 2008". Freshplaza.com. http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=20623. 
  39. ↑ Turhan, Şeref; Köse, Abdullah; Varinlioğlu, Ahmet (2007). "Radioactivity levels in some wild edible mushroom species in Turkey". Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies 43 (3): 249–256. doi:10.1080/10256010701562794. PMID 17786670. 
  40. ↑ Hudler GW. (2000). Magical Mushrooms, Mischievous Molds. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-691-07016-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Bob1Uo_hNTgC&pg=PA175. 
  41. ↑ "Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later". Journal of Psychopharmacology 22 (6): 621–32. 2008. doi:10.1177/0269881108094300. PMID 18593735. 
  42. ↑ "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion". Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto 14: 207. 1998. http://www.magic-mushrooms.net/World_Wide_Distribution_of_Magic_Mushrooms.pdf. Retrieved 2017-09-17. 
  43. ↑ "Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD". Neurology 66 (12): 1920–22. 2006. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000219761.05466.43. PMID 16801660. 
  44. ↑ "Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance". Psychopharmacology 187 (3): 268–83. 2006. doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5. PMID 16826400. 
  45. ↑ "Clinical Sunday". maps.org. http://www.maps.org/conference/clinicalsunday. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 Pdq Integrative, Alternative (17 June 2021). "Medicinal mushrooms". PDQ Cancer Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK424937/. 
  47. ↑ "Coriolus Versicolor". American Cancer Society. 1 November 2008. http://www.cancer.org/docroot/eto/content/eto_5_3x_coriolous_versicolor.asp. 
  48. ↑ "The immunobiology of mushrooms". Experimental Biology and Medicine 233 (3): 259–76. 2008. doi:10.3181/0708-MR-227. PMID 18296732. 
  49. ↑ "Mushrooms in cancer treatment". Cancer Research UK. 30 January 2015. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/cancer-in-general/treatment/complementary-alternative-therapies/individual-therapies/mushrooms-in-cancer-treatment?_ga=2.202576657.1691015314.1510713893-658116733.1510713893. 
  50. ↑ Riika Raisanen (2009), "Dyes from lichens and mushrooms", in Thomas Bechtold and Rita Mussak, Handbook of Natural Colorants, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 183–200, ISBN 978-0-470-74496-3, https://books.google.com/books?id=hBFxuH5uXyIC&pg=PA183 
  51. ↑ "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express 4: 29. 2014. doi:10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8. PMID 24949264. 
  52. ↑ Waltz, Emily (2016-04-01). "Gene-edited CRISPR mushroom escapes US regulation" (in en). Nature 532 (7599): 293. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19754. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 27111611. Bibcode: 2016Natur.532..293W. 

Literature cited

  • Poisonous Mushrooms of Canada: Including other Inedible Fungi. Markham, Ontario: Fitzhenry & Whiteside in cooperation with Agriculture Canada and the Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply and Services Canada. 1985. ISBN 978-0-88902-977-4. 
  • Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-88192-586-9. 
  • How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus I. Eureka, California: Mad River Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-916422-00-4. 

External links

Identification

et:Seened fi:Sienet



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