Social:Kashmiri language

Short description: Indo-Aryan language spoken in Kashmir

Kashmiri
Template:Uninastaliq कॉशुर 𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀
The word "Koshur" in Perso-Arabic script (contemporary, official status), Sharada script (ancient, liturgical) and Devanagari
Native to	India and Pakistan
Region	Kashmir (Kashmir Valley and surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir, parts of northern Azad Kashmir)
Ethnicity	Kashmiris
Native speakers	7.1 million (2011)e26
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Dardic Kashmiri
Dialects	Kishtwari, Poguli
Writing system	Official: Perso-Arabic script (contemporary) Others: Devanagari (informally used by some sections within the Kashmiri Pandit community after 1990), Sharada script (ancient/liturgical)
Official status
Official language in	India Jammu and Kashmir
Language codes
ISO 639-1	ks
ISO 639-1	kas
ISO 639-3	kas
Glottolog	kash1277
Kashmiri is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Template:Contain special characters Kashmiri (English: /kæʃˈmɪəri/ kash-MEER-ee), also known by its endonym Koshur (Kashmiri: Template:Uninastaliq (Perso-Arabic, Official Script), ks), is an Indo-Aryan language of the Dardic branch spoken by around 7 million Kashmiris of the Kashmir region, primarily in the Kashmir Valley and surrounding hills of the Indian-administrated union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, over half the population of that territory. Kashmiri has split ergativity and the unusual verb-second word order.

Since 2020, it has been made an official language of Jammu and Kashmir along with Dogri, Hindi, Urdu and English. Kashmiri is also among the 22 scheduled languages of India.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Pakistani-administrated Azad Kashmir's population.

Geographic distribution and status

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India. Most Kashmiri speakers are located in the Kashmir Valley and other surrounding areas of Jammu and Kashmir. In the Kashmir Valley, Kashmiri speakers form the majority.

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It was a part of the Eighth Schedule in the former constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language was to be developed in the state. After Hindi, Kashmiri is the second fastest growing language of India, followed by Meitei (Manipuri) as well as Gujarati in the third place, and Bengali in the fourth place, according to the 2011 census of India.

Persian began to be used as the court language in Kashmir during the 14th centuries, under the influence of Islam. It was replaced by Urdu in 1889 during the Dogra rule. In 2020, Kashmiri became an official language in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir for the first time. Poguli and Kishtwari are closely related to Kashmiri, which are spoken in the mountains to the south of the Kashmir Valley and have sometimes been counted as dialects of Kashmiri.

Kashmiri is spoken by roughly five percent of Azad Kashmir's population. According to the 1998 Pakistan Census, there were 132,450 Kashmiri speakers in Azad Kashmir. Native speakers of the language were dispersed in "pockets" throughout Azad Kashmir, particularly in the districts of Muzaffarabad (15%), Neelam (20%) and Hattian (15%), with very small minorities in Haveli (5%) and Bagh (2%). The Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is distinct from, although still intelligible with, the Kashmiri of the Neelam Valley to the north. In Neelam Valley, Kashmiri is the second most widely spoken language and the majority language in at least a dozen or so villages, where in about half of these, it is the sole mother tongue. The Kashmiri dialect of Neelum is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir Valley, particularly Kupwara. At the 2017 Census of Pakistan, as many as 350,000 people declared their first language to be Kashmiri.

A process of language shift is observable among Kashmiri-speakers in Azad Kashmir according to linguist Tariq Rahman, as they gradually adopt local languages such as Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko or move towards the lingua franca Urdu. This has resulted in these languages gaining ground at the expense of Kashmiri. There have been calls for the promotion of Kashmiri at an official level; in 1983, a Kashmiri Language Committee was set up by the government to patronise Kashmiri and impart it in school-level education. However, the limited attempts at introducing the language have not been successful, and it is Urdu, rather than Kashmiri, that Kashmiri Muslims of Azad Kashmir have seen as their identity symbol. Rahman notes that efforts to organise a Kashmiri language movement have been challenged by the scattered nature of the Kashmiri-speaking community in Azad Kashmir.

Phonology

Kashmiri has a very large phoneme inventory: 32 vowels and 62 consonants, giving that vowel nasalization and consonant palatalization are phonemic and not phonetic. It has the following phonemes.

Vowels

The oral vowels are as follows:

	Front	Central	Back
High	i iː	ɨ ɨː	u uː
Mid	e eː	ə əː	o oː
Low		a aː	ɔ ɔː

The short high vowels are near-high, and the low vowels apart from /aː/ are near-low.

Nasalization is phonemic. All sixteen oral vowels have nasal counterparts.

Consonants

		Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Post-alv./ palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n
Stop/ affricate	voiceless	p	t	t͡s	ʈ	t͡ʃ	k
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	t͡sʰ	ʈʰ	t͡ʃʰ	kʰ
	voiced	b	d		ɖ	d͡ʒ	ɡ
Fricative	voiceless			s		ʃ		h
	voiced			z
Approximant		ʋ	l			j
Trill			r

Palatalization is phonemic. All consonants apart from those in the post-alveolar/palatal column have palatalized counterparts.

Archaisms

Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.

Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (This tendency was complete in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.

Writing system

There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Perso-Arabic script, the Devanagari script and the Sharada script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.

The Kashmiri language was traditionally written in the Sharada script from the 8th Century AD onwards. Between the 8th and the first quarter of the 20th century AD, Sharada was the primary script of inscriptional and literary production in Kashmir for Sanskrit and Kashmiri. With increased use of Persian script for writing Kashmiri in the 19th century AD, and the growth of other brahmic scripts such as Devanagari and Takri, the use of Sharada declined. The Sharada script is inadequate for writing modern Kashmiri because it lacks sufficient signs to represent Kashmiri vowels. Modern usage of Sharada is limited to religious ceremonies and rituals of Kashmiri Pandits, and for horoscope-writing by them.

Today Kashmiri is primarily written in Perso-Arabic (with some modifications, such as additions of new signs to represent Kashmiri vowels). Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the scripts that regularly indicates all vowel sounds.

The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script is recognized as the official script of Kashmiri language by the Jammu and Kashmir government and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has been derived from Persian alphabet. The consonant inventory and their corresponding pronunciations of Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script doesn't differ from Perso-Arabic script, with the exception of the letter ژ, which is pronounced as /t͡s/ instead of /ʒ/. However, the vowel inventory of Kashmiri is significantly larger than other Perso-Arabic derived or influenced South Asian Perso-Arabic scripts. There are 17 vowels in Kashmiri, shown with diacritics, letters (alif, waw, ye), or both. In Kashmiri, the convention is that most vowel diacritics are written at all times.

Despite Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script cutting across religious boundaries and being used by both the Kashmiri Hindus and the Kashmiri Muslims, some attempts have been made to give a religious outlook regarding the script and make Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script to be associated with some sections of Kashmiri Hindu community.

Perso-Arabic script

Consonants

Name	Forms				IPA	Transliteration	Unicode	Example
Kashmiri	Isolated	Final	Medial	Initial				Kashmiri word	IPA	Meaning
Template:Uninastaliq ạlif	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/∅/, silent	–	U+0627	Template:Uninastaliq afsānü	/afsaːnɨ/	Short story
Template:Uninastaliq bē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/b/	b	U+0628	Template:Uninastaliq bikhạ̄r'	/bikʰəːrʲ/	Beggar
Template:Uninastaliq pē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/p/	p	U+067E	Template:Uninastaliq pampōsh	/pampoːʃ/	Lotus flower
Template:Uninastaliq pha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/pʰ/	ph	U+067E and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq phal	/pʰal/	Fruit
Template:Uninastaliq tē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t̪/	t	U+062A	Template:Uninastaliq tajvīz	/t̪ad͡ʒʋiːz/	Proposal
Template:Uninastaliq tha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t̪ʰ/	th	U+062A and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq thạ̄l'	/t̪ʰəːlʲ/	Plate
Template:Uninastaliq ṭē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ʈ/	ṭ	U+0679	Template:Uninastaliq ṭūp'	/ʈuːpʲ/	Cap
Template:Uninastaliq ṭha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ʈʰ/	ṭh	U+0679 and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq ṭhūl	/ʈʰuːl/	Egg
Template:Uninastaliq sē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/s/	s	U+062B	Template:Uninastaliq sobūth	/sobuːt̪ʰ/	Proof
Template:Uninastaliq jīm	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/d͡ʒ/	j	U+062C	Template:Uninastaliq jāy	/d͡ʒaːj/	Place
Template:Uninastaliq chīm	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t͡ʃ/	ch, č	U+0686	Template:Uninastaliq chạ̄n̂d'	/t͡ʃə̃ːd̪ʲ/	Silver
Template:Uninastaliq chha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t͡ʃʰ/	chh, čh	U+0686 and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq chhān	/t͡ʃʰaːn/	Carpenter
Template:Uninastaliq hay	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/h/	h	U+062D	Template:Uninastaliq ḥājath	/haːd͡ʒat̪ʰ/	Need
Template:Uninastaliq khay	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/x/ ~ /kʰ/	kh	U+062E	Template:Uninastaliq khatarnākh	/xatarnaːkʰ/	Dangerous
Template:Uninastaliq dāl	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/d̪/	d	U+062F	Template:Uninastaliq dukān	/d̪ukaːn/	Shop
Template:Uninastaliq ḍāl	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ɖ/	ḍ	U+0688	Template:Uninastaliq ḍọḍ	/ɖɔɖ/	One and a half
Template:Uninastaliq zāl	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/z/	z	U+0630	Template:Uninastaliq zehan	/zehan/	Mind
Template:Uninastaliq rē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/r/	r	U+0631	Template:Uninastaliq rükh Template:Uninastaliq khrọkh	/rɨkʰ/ /kʰrɔkʰ/	Line Snore
Template:Uninastaliq ṛē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ɽ/	ṛ	U+0691	Template:Uninastaliq lạṛkü	/ləɽkɨ/	Boy
Template:Uninastaliq zē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/z/	z	U+0632	Template:Uninastaliq zāman	/zaːman/	Yawn
Template:Uninastaliq tsē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t͡s/	ts	U+0698	Template:Uninastaliq tsạr	/t͡sər/	House sparrow
Template:Uninastaliq tsha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t͡sʰ/	tsh	U+0698 and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq tshāy	/t͡sʰaːj/	Shadow
Template:Uninastaliq sīn	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/s/	s	U+0633	Template:Uninastaliq sangur	/sãɡur/	Mountain
Template:Uninastaliq shīn	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ʃ/	sh, š	U+0634	Template:Uninastaliq shod	/ʃod̪/	Pure, Genuine
Template:Uninastaliq sọ̄d	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/s/	s	U+0635	Template:Uninastaliq sadqü	/sad̪qɨ/	Charity
Template:Uninastaliq zọ̄d	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/z/	z	U+0636	Template:Uninastaliq zạ̄mīn	/zəːmiːn/	Responsible, guarantor
Template:Uninastaliq tọy	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/t̪/	t	U+0637	Template:Uninastaliq tōtü	/t̪oːt̪ɨ/	Parrot
Template:Uninastaliq zọy	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/z/	z	U+0638	Template:Uninastaliq zạ̄lim	/zəːlim/	Cruel
Template:Uninastaliq ạ̄n	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/∅/, silent	–	U+0639	Template:Uninastaliq aqül	/aqɨl/	Wisdom
Template:Uninastaliq gạ̄n	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ɣ/~/ɡ/	g, ğ	U+063A	Template:Uninastaliq gọsü	/ɣɔsɨ/	Anger
Template:Uninastaliq fē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/f/~/pʰ/	f	U+0641	Template:Uninastaliq firin'	/firinʲ/	Sweet pudding
Template:Uninastaliq qāf	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/q/~/k/	q	U+0642	Template:Uninastaliq qāshwü	/qaːʃwɨ/	Spoon
Template:Uninastaliq kīf	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/k/	k	U+0643	Template:Uninastaliq kọkur	/kɔkur/	Chicken
Template:Uninastaliq kha	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/kʰ/	kh	U+0643 and U+06BE	Template:Uninastaliq khọr	/kʰɔr/	Foot
Template:Uninastaliq gāf	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ɡ/	g	U+06AF	Template:Uninastaliq gāsh	/ɡaːʃ/	Light
Template:Uninastaliq lām	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/l/	l	U+0644	Template:Uninastaliq lọkchār	/lɔkt͡ʃaːr/	Childhood
Template:Uninastaliq mim	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/m/	m	U+0645	Template:Uninastaliq marüg	/marɨɡ/	Meadow
Template:Uninastaliq nūn	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/n/, /◌̃/	n	U+0646	Template:Uninastaliq nab	/nab/	Sky
Template:Uninastaliq nūn gọna	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq			/◌̃/	ñ	U+06BA	Template:Uninastaliq dāñ zạmīn	/d̪ãː zəmiːn/	Paddy field
Template:Uninastaliq wāw	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/ʋ/	v, w	U+0648	Template:Uninastaliq van	/ʋan/	Forest
Template:Uninastaliq hē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/h/	h	U+06C1	Template:Uninastaliq họpü Template:Uninastaliq wạhmü Template:Uninastaliq pagāh	/hɔpɨ/ /ʋəhmɨ/ /paɡaːh/	Chubby Fear, anxiety Tomorrow
Template:Uninastaliq yē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/j/	y	U+06CC	Template:Uninastaliq yāl Template:Uninastaliq pyālü	/jaːl/ /pʲaːlɨ/	Hair of horse Cup
Template:Uninastaliq Lọkuṭ yē
Template:Uninastaliq boḍ yē	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/j/	y	U+06D2	Template:Uninastaliq ḍāy	/ɖaːj/	Two and a half
Template:Uninastaliq tālür'	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	/◌ʲ/	',	U+0620	Template:Uninastaliq sǖt'	/sɨːt̪ʲ/	With

Vowels

Name	Final vowel glyph (vowel and letters bē ب and rē ر)	Medial vowel glyph (vowel and letters bē ب and rē ر)	Initial vowel glyph	IPA	Transliteration	Unicode	Example
Kashmiri							Kashmiri word	IPA	Meaning
Template:Uninastaliq zabar	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[a]	a	U+064E	Template:Uninastaliq apuz Template:Uninastaliq palav	/apuz/ /palaʋ/	Lie Garments, clothes
Template:Uninastaliq mad	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[aː]	ā	U+0622 U+0627	Template:Uninastaliq āb Template:Uninastaliq pān	/aːb/ /paːn/	Lie Body
Template:Uninastaliq amālü	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ə]	ạ, ö, ȧ	U+0623 U+0654	Template:Uninastaliq ạchh Template:Uninastaliq gạr	/ət͡ʃʰ/ /ɡər/	Eye Clock, watch
Template:Uninastaliq amālü mad	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[əː]	ạ̄, ȫ, ä	U+0672	Template:Uninastaliq ạ̄s Template:Uninastaliq dạ̄n	/əːs/ /d̪əːn/	Mouth Pomegranate
Template:Uninastaliq zēr	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[i]	i, í	U+0650	Template:Uninastaliq insān Template:Uninastaliq sir	/insaːn/ /sir/	Human being Secret
Template:Uninastaliq kashi zēr	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[iː]	ī	Initial and Medial: U+06CC and U+0656 Final: U+06CC	Template:Uninastaliq īmān Template:Uninastaliq sīr Template:Uninastaliq wardī	/iːmaːn/ /siːr/ /ʋard̪iː/	Faith Brick Uniform
Template:Uninastaliq sāyi	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ɨ]	ü, ụ, u', ι	Initial: U+0625 Medial and Final: U+0655	Template:Uninastaliq bü Template:Uninastaliq kạdül	/bɨ/ /kəd̪ɨl/	I Bridge
Template:Uninastaliq sāyi mad	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ɨː]	ǖ, ụ̄, ū'	Initial: U+0673 Medial and Final: U+065F	Template:Uninastaliq tǖr Template:Uninastaliq khǖmü	/t̪ɨːr/ /xɨːmɨ/	Cold Tent
Template:Uninastaliq pēsh	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[u]	u	U+064F	Template:Uninastaliq puj	/pud͡ʒ/	Butcher
Template:Uninastaliq kashi wāwuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[uː]	ū	U+0648 and U+0657	Template:Uninastaliq pūt	/puːt̪/	Chick
Template:Uninastaliq nīmü wāwuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[o]	o, ó	U+06C6	Template:Uninastaliq dob	/d̪ob/	Washerman
Template:Uninastaliq wāwuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[oː]	ō	U+0648	Template:Uninastaliq mōr	/moːr/	Peacock
Template:Uninastaliq lạṭ' wāwuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ɔ]	ọ, ŏ	U+06C4	Template:Uninastaliq gọlāb	/ɡɔlaːb/	Rose
Template:Uninastaliq lạṭ' wāwuk mad	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ɔː]	ọ̄, ŏa	U+06C4 and U+0627	Template:Uninastaliq sọ̄d	/sɔːd̪/	One and a quarter
Template:Uninastaliq nīmü yāyuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[e]	e, ë	Initial and Medial: U+06CC and U+065A Final: U+06D2 and U+065A	Template:Uninastaliq beni Template:Uninastaliq me	/beni/ /me/	Sister Me, I
Template:Uninastaliq yāyuk	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[eː]	ē	Initial and Medial: U+06CC Final: U+06D2	Template:Uninastaliq rēsh	/reːʃ/	Beard
Template:Uninastaliq gōl yāyuk	-	Template:Uninastaliq Template:Uninastaliq	Template:Uninastaliq	[ʲa]	ĕ, ya	Initial and Medial: U+0620	Template:Uninastaliq mĕqrāz	/mʲaqraːz/	Scissors

Devanagari

Consonants

Letter	क	ख	ग	च	छ	ज	च़	छ़	ज़	ट	ठ	ड	त	थ	द	न	प	फ	ब	म	य	र	ल	व	श	स	ह
IPA	[k]	[kʰ]	[g]	[t͡ʃ]	[t͡ʃʰ]	[d͡ʒ]	[t͡s]	[t͡sʰ]	[z]	[ʈ]	[ʈʰ]	[ɖ]	[t]	[tʰ]	[d]	[n]	[p]	[pʰ]	[b]	[m]	[j]	[r]	[l]	[ʋ]	[ʃ]	[s]	[h]
Transliteration	k	kh	g	ch	chh	j	ts	tsh	z	ṭ	ṭh	ḍ	t	th	d	n	p	ph	b	m	y	r	l	w	sh	s	h

Vowels

There have been a few versions of the Devanagari script for Kashmiri. The 2002 version of the proposal is shown below. This version has readers and more content available on the Internet, even though this is an older proposal. This version makes use of the vowels ॲ/ऑ and vowel signs कॅ/कॉ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] and elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] that also exist in other Devanagari-based scripts such as Marathi and Hindi but are used for the sound of other vowels.

Letter	अ	आ	ॲ	ऑ	इ	ई	ॶ	ॷ	उ	ऊ	ऎ	ए	ऐ	ऒ	ओ	औ	-व	ं
IPA	[a]	[aː]	[ə]	[əː]	[i]	[iː]	[ɨ]	[ɨː]	[u]	[uː]	[e]	[eː]	[əi]	[o]	[oː]	[ɔː]	[ɔ]	[◌̃]
Transliteration	a	ā	ạ	ạ̄	i	ī	ü	ǖ	u	ū	e	ē	ai	o	ō	ọ̄	ọ	̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k	क	का	कॅ	कॉ	कि	की	कॖ	कॗ	कु	कू	कॆ	के	कै	कॊ	को	कौ	क्व or कव	कं

Tabulated below is the latest (2009) version of the proposal to spell the Kashmiri vowels with Devanagari. The primary change in this version is the changed stand alone characters ॳ / ॴ and vowel signs कऺ / कऻ for the schwa-like vowel [ə] & elongated schwa-like vowel [əː] and a new stand alone vowel ॵ and vowel sign कॏ for the open-mid back rounded vowel [ɔ] which can be used instead of the consonant व standing-in for this vowel.

Letter	अ	आ	ॳ	ॴ	इ	ई	ॶ	ॷ	उ	ऊ	ऎ	ए	ऐ	ऒ	ओ	औ	ॵ	ं
IPA	[a]	[aː]	[ə]	[əː]	[i]	[iː]	[ɨ]	[ɨː]	[u]	[uː]	[e]	[eː]	[əi]	[o]	[oː]	[ɔː]	[ɔ]	[◌̃]
Transliteration	a	ā	ạ	ạ̄	i	ī	ü	ǖ	u	ū	e	ē	ai	o	ō	ọ̄	ọ	̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k	क	का	कऺ	कऻ	कि	की	कॖ	कॗ	कु	कू	कॆ	के	कै	कॊ	को	कौ	कॏ	कं

Sharada script

Consonants

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated glyph	Remarks
𑆑𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆑	kōv kạ	ka	[ka]	𑆑
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤𑆴 𑆒	khvani khạ	kha	[kʰa]	𑆒
𑆓𑆓𑆫𑇀 𑆓	gagar gạ	ga	[ɡa]	𑆓
𑆓𑆳𑆱𑆴 𑆔	gāsi ghạ	gha	[ɡʰa]	𑆔	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆫𑆶𑆓𑇀 𑆕	nārug ṅạ	ṅa	[ŋa]	𑆕	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆖𑆳𑆛𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆖	tsāṭuv chạ	cha	[t͡ʃa]	𑆖
𑆗𑇀𑆮𑆛𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆗	tshvaṭiñ chhạ	chha	[t͡ʃʰa]	𑆗
𑆘𑆪𑆴 𑆘	zayi jạ	ja	[d͡ʒa]	𑆘
𑆘𑆳𑆯𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆙	zashiñ jhạ	jha	[d͡ʒʰa]	𑆙	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆒𑇀𑆮𑆤 𑆦𑆶𑆛𑆴 𑆚	khvana phuṭi ñạ	ña	[ɲa]	𑆚	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆃𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆛	ar mām̐ṭa	ṭa	[ʈa]	𑆛
𑆱𑆫𑇀-𑆩𑆳𑆀𑆜	sar mām̐ṭha	ṭha	[ʈʰa]	𑆜
𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝	ḍuḍ ḍạ	ḍa	[ɖa]	𑆝
𑆝𑆑 𑆞	ḍaka ḍhạ	ḍha	[ɖʰa]	𑆞	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆳𑆤𑆓𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆟	nānaguri ṇạ	ṇa	[ɳa]	𑆟	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆠𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆠	tov tạ	ta	[ta]	𑆠
𑆡𑆳𑆯𑆴 𑆡	thāshi thạ	tha	[tʰa]	𑆡
𑆢𑆢𑆮𑇀 𑆢	dadav dạ	da	[da]	𑆢
𑆢𑆷𑆚𑇀 𑆣	dūñ dhạ	dha	[dʰa]	𑆣	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆤𑆱𑇀𑆠𑆶𑆮𑇀 𑆤	nastūv nạ	na	[na]	𑆤
𑆥𑆝𑆶𑆫𑆴 𑆥	paḍuri pạ	pa	[pa]	𑆥
𑆦𑆫𑆴𑆚𑇀 𑆦	phariñ phạ	pha	[pʰa]	𑆦
𑆧𑆶𑆧𑇀 𑆧	bub bạ	ba	[ba]	𑆧
𑆧𑆳𑆪𑆴 𑆨	bāyi bhạ	bha	[bʰa]	𑆨	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆩𑆾𑆮𑇀 𑆩	mōv mạ	ma	[ma]	𑆩
𑆪𑆳𑆮 𑆪	yāva yạ	ya	[ja]	𑆪
𑆫𑆑 𑆫	raka rạ	ra	[ra]	𑆫
𑆬𑆳𑆮 𑆬	lāva lạ	la	[la]	𑆬
𑆧𑆝𑆶 𑆝𑆶𑆝𑇀 𑆝	boḍu ḍuḍ ḍạ	ḷa	[ɭa]	𑆭	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆮𑆯𑆴 𑆮	vashi vạ	va	[ʋa]	𑆮
𑆯𑆑𑆫𑇀 𑆯	shakar shạ	sha	[ʃa]	𑆯
𑆦𑆳𑆫𑆴 𑆰	phāri ṣạ	ṣa	[ʂa]	𑆰	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this consonant.
𑆱𑆶𑆱𑇀 𑆱	sus sạ	sa	[sa]	𑆱
𑆲𑆳𑆬 𑆲	hala hạ	ha	[ha]	𑆲

Vowels

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated glyph	Remarks
𑆄𑆢𑆿 𑆃	ādau a	a	[a]	𑆃
𑆎𑆠𑆮𑇀 𑆄	aitav ā	ā	[aː]	𑆄
𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆪𑆼	yeyev yē	i	[i]	𑆅
𑆅𑆯𑆫𑆮𑇀 𑆆	yisherav yī	ī	[iː]	𑆆
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆮𑆾	vọpal vō	u	[u]	𑆇
𑆮𑇀𑆮𑆥𑆬𑇀 𑆧𑆳 𑆈	vọpal bā ū	ū	[uː]	𑆈
𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉	r̥enav	r̥	[r̩]	𑆉	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊	rakhav	r̥̄	[r̩ː]	𑆊	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋	leyev	l̥	[l̩]	𑆋	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
𑆬𑆵𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆌	līsav	l̥̄	[l̩ː]	𑆌	Modern Kashmiri does not possess this vowel.
𑆠𑆬𑆮𑇀𑆪𑇀 𑆍	talavya yē	ē	[eː]	𑆍
𑆠𑆳𑆬𑆵 𑆎	tolī ai	ai	[əi]	𑆎
𑆮𑆶𑆜𑆾 𑆏	vuṭhō ō	ō	[oː]	𑆏
𑆃𑆯𑆴𑆢𑆵 𑆐	ashidī au	au	[ɔː]	𑆐
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶	aḍi tsandra phyor	am̐	[◌̃]	𑆃𑆀
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁	mas phyori aṃ	aṃ	[n], [m]	𑆃𑆁
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂	dō phyori aḥ	aḥ	[h]	𑆃𑆂

Vowel mark

Name		Transliteration	IPA	Isolated vowel mark	Vowel mark indicated on consonant pa	Distinct ways of indicating vowel marks on special consonants
𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀	vahāy	-ā	[aː]	𑆳	𑆥𑆳	𑆕 = 𑆕𑆳 𑆘 = 𑆘𑆳 𑆛 = 𑆛𑆳 𑆟 = 𑆟𑆳
𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀	mūnthar	-i	[i]	𑆴	𑆥𑆴
𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆩𑆷𑆤𑇀𑆡𑆫𑇀	ar mūnthar	-ī	[iː]	𑆵	𑆥𑆵
𑆒𑆶𑆫𑆶	khuru	-u	[u]	𑆶	𑆥𑆶	𑆑 = 𑆑𑆶 𑆓 = 𑆓𑆶 𑆙 = 𑆙𑆶 𑆚 = 𑆚𑆶 𑆝 = 𑆝𑆶 𑆠 = 𑆠𑆶 𑆨 = 𑆨𑆶 𑆫 = 𑆫𑆶 𑆯 = 𑆯𑆶
𑆃𑆫𑇀 𑆒𑆷𑆫𑆷	ar khūrū	-ū	[uː]	𑆷	𑆥𑆷	𑆑 = 𑆑𑆷 𑆓 = 𑆓𑆷 𑆙 = 𑆙𑆷 𑆚 = 𑆚𑆷 𑆝 = 𑆝𑆷 𑆠 = 𑆠𑆷 𑆨 = 𑆨𑆷 𑆫 = 𑆫𑆷 𑆯 = 𑆯𑆷
𑆉𑆤𑆮𑇀 𑆉	r̥enav r̥a	-r̥	[r̩]	𑆸	𑆥𑆸	𑆑 = 𑆑𑆸
𑆫𑆒𑆮𑇀 𑆊	rakhav ru	-r̥̄	[r̩ː]	𑆹	𑆥𑆹	𑆑 = 𑆑𑆹
𑆬𑇀𑆪𑆪𑆮𑇀 𑆋	leyev l̥a	-l̥	[l̩]	𑆺	𑆥𑆺
𑆬𑆵𑆱𑆮𑇀 𑆌	līsav l̥̄a	-l̥̄	[l̩ː]	𑆻	𑆥𑆻
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆝𑆷	hvanḍū	-ē	[eː]	𑆼	𑆥𑆼
𑆲𑇀𑆮𑆁𑆘𑆾𑆫𑇀	hvanjōr	-ai	[əi]	𑆽	𑆥𑆽
𑆃𑆑𑆶 𑆯𑇀𑆪𑆷𑆫𑆶	oku shyūr	-ō	[oː]	𑆾	𑆥𑆾
𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆯𑆴 𑆮𑆲𑆳𑆪𑇀	okushi vahāy	-au	[ɔː]	𑆿	𑆥𑆿
𑆃𑆝𑆴 𑆖𑆤𑇀𑆢𑇀𑆫 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆶	aḍi tsandra phyor	-am̐	[◌̃]	𑆀	𑆥𑆀
𑆩𑆱𑇀 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆁	mas phyori aṃ	-aṃ	[n], [m]	𑆁	𑆥𑆁
𑆢𑆾 𑆦𑇀𑆪𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆂	dō phyori aḥ	-aḥ	[h]	𑆂	𑆥𑆂

Grammar

Kashmiri is a fusional language with verb-second (V2) word order. Several of Kashmiri's grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.

Nouns

Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or "generic" noun qualities.

Gender

The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun. A relatively small group of feminine nouns have unique suppletion forms that are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms. The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:

Process	Masculine	Feminine	Meaning
-en’ suffix	[d̪ukaːnd̪aːr] Template:Uninastaliq	[d̪ukaːnd̪aːrenʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	shopkeeper
-bāy suffix	[maːʃʈar] Template:Uninastaliq	[maːʃʈarbaːj] Template:Uninastaliq	teacher
-in’ + vowel change	[xar] Template:Uninastaliq	[xərinʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	donkey
-ür + vowel change	[pʰot̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[pʰɔt̪ɨr] Template:Uninastaliq	basket
Adding of affix	[huːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[huːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	dog/bitch
vowel change	[ɡaɡur] Template:Uninastaliq	[ɡaɡɨr] Template:Uninastaliq	rat
consonant change	[hokʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[hot͡ʃʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	dry
vowel/consonant change	[t̪ot̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ət͡s] Template:Uninastaliq	hot
suppletive form	[marɨd̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[zanaːnɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	man/woman
masculine only	[nuːl] Template:Uninastaliq	---	mongoose
feminine only	---	[mət͡ʃʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	housefly

Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Urdu or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Urdu have different genders in Kashmiri.

Case

There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative. Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.

Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense. Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb is marked. However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case. Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.

Noun morphology

The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
Nom.	-Ø	-Ø	-Ø	-Ø
Erg.	-[an] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[i] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
Dat.	-[as] or -[is] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	-[an] Template:Uninastaliq	-[i] Template:Uninastaliq	-[an] Template:Uninastaliq
Abl.	-[i] or -[ɨ] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[i] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
Voc.	-[aː] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ij] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq

Verbs

Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending - /un/), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries. Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.

Tense

Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -/aːn/ added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb /jun/ (to come):

Present

	Masculine	Feminine
1st person sing.	[t͡ʃʰus jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰas jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person sing.	[t͡ʃʰukʰ jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰakʰ jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person sing.	[t͡ʃʰu jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰe jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq
1st person pl.	[t͡ʃʰi jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰa jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person pl.	[t͡ʃʰiʋ jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰaʋ jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person pl.	[t͡ʃʰi jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃʰe jiʋaːn] Template:Uninastaliq

Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions. The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to completed past actions. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.

As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative. Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.

Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb /parun/ ("to read"):

Simple past (transitive)

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[por] Template:Uninastaliq	[pərʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pər] Template:Uninastaliq	[pari] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	Non-honorific	[porut̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pərit̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pərɨt̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[parʲat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
	Honorific	[porʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pəriʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pərʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pariʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person		[por] Template:Uninastaliq	[pərʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[pər] Template:Uninastaliq	[pari] Template:Uninastaliq

A group of irregular intransitive verbs (special intransitives), take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.

Simple past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[us] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[as] Template:Uninastaliq	-[i] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[kʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[kʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-Ø	-Ø	-[t͡ʃʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[i] Template:Uninastaliq

Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.

Simple past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[jas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[jaːkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[joːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq

In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change. Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:

Indefinite past (transitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st/3rd person	-[joːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[joːt̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq

Remote past (transitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st/3rd person	-[eːjoːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[eːjoːt̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːjat̪ʰ] Template:Uninastaliq

As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:

Indefinite past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[aːs] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[kʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[kʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[aʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːji] Template:Uninastaliq

Remote past (special intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[aːjaːs] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːjas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[aːkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[aːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[eːjoːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːjɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[eːjaːjɨ] Template:Uninastaliq

Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:

Indefinite past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[jas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[jaːkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[joːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq

Remote past (intransitive)

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person	-[jeːjaːs] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjaːs] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[jeːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjiʋɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[jeːjoːʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjaːjɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jeːjɨ] Template:Uninastaliq

Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:

Future (intransitive)

	Singular	Plural
1st person	-[mɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[maʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person	-[akʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jiʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	-[ji] Template:Uninastaliq	-[an] Template:Uninastaliq

The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by adding suffixes that agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:

Future (transitive)

	Singular object	Plural object
1st person sing.	-[an] Template:Uninastaliq	-[akʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
1st person pl.	-[ɨhoːn] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ɨhoːkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person sing.	-[ɨhǝn] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ɨhǝkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person pl.	-[ɨhuːn] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ɨhuːkʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person sing.	-[jas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[jakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person pl.	-[ɨnas] Template:Uninastaliq	-[ɨnakʰ] Template:Uninastaliq

Aspect

There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary /aːsun/ ("to be")—which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).

Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:

Masculine		Feminine
singular	plural	singular	plural
-[mut̪] Template:Uninastaliq	-[mɨt̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	-[mɨt͡s] Template:Uninastaliq	-[mat͡sɨ] Template:Uninastaliq

The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -/aːn/ in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement. A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.

Pronouns

Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.

Nominative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[bɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ǝsʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[bɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ǝsʲ] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person		[t͡sɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ohʲ] or [t̪uhʲ] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡sɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ohʲ] or [t̪uhʲ] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	proximate	[ji] Template:Uninastaliq	[jim] Template:Uninastaliq	[ji] Template:Uninastaliq	[jimɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote I	[hu] Template:Uninastaliq	[hum] Template:Uninastaliq	[hɔ] Template:Uninastaliq	[humɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote II	[su] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪im] Template:Uninastaliq	[sɔ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪imɨ] Template:Uninastaliq

Ergative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq	[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person		[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	proximate	[jemʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[jimaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemi] Template:Uninastaliq	[jimaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote I	[humʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[humaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[humi] Template:Uninastaliq	[humaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote II	[t̪ǝmʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪imaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ami] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪imaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq

Dative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq	[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person		[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	proximate	[jemis] Template:Uninastaliq	[jiman] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemis] Template:Uninastaliq	[jiman] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote I	[humis] Template:Uninastaliq	[human] Template:Uninastaliq	[humis] Template:Uninastaliq	[human] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote II	[t̪ǝmis] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪iman] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ǝmis] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪iman] Template:Uninastaliq

Ablative

		Masculine		Feminine
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq	[me] Template:Uninastaliq	[asi] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd person		[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡se] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ɔhi] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd person	proximate	[jemi] Template:Uninastaliq	[jimaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemi] Template:Uninastaliq	[jimaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote I	[humi] Template:Uninastaliq	[humaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[humi] Template:Uninastaliq	[humaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
	remote II	[t̪ǝmi] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪imaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ǝmi] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪imaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq

There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
1st sing.	[mʲoːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[mʲəːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[mʲəːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[mʲaːni] Template:Uninastaliq
1st pl.	[soːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[səːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[səːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[saːni] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd sing.	[t͡ʃoːn] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃəːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃəːnʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡ʃaːni] Template:Uninastaliq
2nd pl.	[t̪uhund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪uhɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪uhɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪uhɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd sing. prox.	[jemʲ sund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemʲ sɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemʲ sɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[jemʲ sɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd pl. prox.	[jihund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[jihɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[jihɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[jihɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd sing. R I	[humʲ sund] Template:Uninastaliq	[humʲ sɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[humʲ sɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[humʲ sɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd pl. R I	[huhund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[huhɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[huhɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[huhɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd sing. R II	[t̪ǝmʲ sund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ǝmʲ sɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ǝmʲ sɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ǝmʲ sɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq
3rd pl. R II	[t̪ihund̪] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ihɨnd̪ʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ihɨnz] Template:Uninastaliq	[t̪ihɨnzɨ] Template:Uninastaliq

Adjectives

There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those that agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those that are not declined at all. Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns. The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective Template:Uninastaliq [ʋɔzul] ("red"):

	Masculine		Feminine
	singular	plural	singular	plural
Nom.	[ʋɔzul] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzɨlʲ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzɨd͡ʒ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] Template:Uninastaliq
Erg.	[ʋɔzlɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzlʲaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq
Dat.	[ʋɔzlis] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzlʲan] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒan] Template:Uninastaliq
Abl.	[ʋɔzlɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzlʲaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒi] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʋɔzd͡ʒaʋ] Template:Uninastaliq

Among those adjectives not declined are adjectives that end in -[lad̪] or -[ɨ], adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words Template:Uninastaliq [t͡sor] ("more") and Template:Uninastaliq [sʲaʈʰaː] ("most"), respectively.

Numerals

Within the Kashmir language, numerals are separated into cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers. These numeral forms, as well as their aggregative (both, all the five, etc.), multiplicative (two times, four times, etc.), and emphatic forms (only one, only three, etc.) are provided by the table below.

	Cardinal	Ordinal	Aggregative	Multiplicative	Emphatic
Suffix		-[jum] for masculine -[im] for feminine	-[ʋaj]	-[ɡun] or -[ɡon] for masculine -[ɡɨn] for feminine	-[j]
0.	[sifar] Template:Uninastaliq
1.	[akʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ǝkʲum] or [ǝkim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq		[oɡun] or [oɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[akuj] Template:Uninastaliq
2.	[zɨ] Template:Uninastaliq	[dojum] or [dojim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[dɔʃʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[doɡun] or [doɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[zɨj] Template:Uninastaliq
3.	[tre] Template:Uninastaliq	[trejum] or [trejim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[treʃʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[troɡun] or [troɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[trej] Template:Uninastaliq
4.	[t͡soːr] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡suːrʲum] or [t͡suːrim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡sɔʃʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡soɡun] or [t͡soɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡soːraj] Template:Uninastaliq
5.	[pãːt͡sʰ] or [pə̃ːt͡sʰ] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[pɨ̃:t͡sjum] or [pɨ̃:t͡sim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[pãːt͡sɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[pãːt͡sɨɡun] or [pãːt͡sɨɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[pãːt͡saj] Template:Uninastaliq
6.	[ʃe] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʃejum] or [ʃejim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[ʃenɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[ʃuɡun] or [ʃuɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[ʃej] Template:Uninastaliq
7.	[satʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[sətjum] or [sətim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[satɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[satɨɡun] or [satɨɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[sataj] Template:Uninastaliq
8.	[əːʈʰ] Template:Uninastaliq	[ɨːʈʰjum] or [uːʈʰjum] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq [ɨːʈʰim] or [uːʈʰim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[əːʈʰɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[əːʈʰɨɡun] or [əːʈʰɨɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[əːʈʰaj] Template:Uninastaliq
9.	[naʋ] Template:Uninastaliq	[nəʋjum] or [nəʋim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[naʋɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[naʋɨɡun] or [naʋɨɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[naʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq
10.	[dəh] or [daːh] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[dəhjum] or [dəhim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[dəhɨʋaj] Template:Uninastaliq	[dəhɨɡon] or [dəhɨɡɨn] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[dəhaj] Template:Uninastaliq
11.	[kah] or [kaːh] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[kəhjum] or [kəhim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq
12.	[bah] or [baːh] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq	[bəhjum] or [bəhim] بٔہیُٛم or بٔہِم
13.	[truʋaːh] Template:Uninastaliq	[truʋəːhjum] or [truʋəːhim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq
14.	[t͡sɔdaːh] Template:Uninastaliq	[t͡sɔdəːhjum] or [t͡sɔdəːhim] Template:Uninastaliq or Template:Uninastaliq
15.	[pandaːh]	[pandəːhjum] or [pandəːhim] or
16.	[ʃuraːh]	[ʃurəːhjum] or [ʃurəːhim] or
17.	[sadaːh]	[sadəːhjum] or [sadəːhim] or
18.	[arɨdaːh]	[arɨdəːhjum] or [arɨdəːhim] or
19.	[kunɨʋuh]	[kunɨʋuhjum] or [kunɨʋuhim] or
20.	[ʋuh]	[ʋuhjum] or [ʋuhim] or
21.	[akɨʋuh]	[akɨʋuhjum] or [akɨʋuhim] or
22.	[zɨtoːʋuh]	[zɨtoːʋuhjum] or [zɨtoːʋuhim] or
23.	[troʋuh]	[troʋuhjum] or [troʋuhim] or
24.	[t͡soʋuh]	[t͡soʋuhjum] or [t͡soʋuhim] or
25.	[pɨnt͡sɨh]	[pɨnt͡sɨhjum] or [pɨnt͡sɨhim] or
26.	[ʃatɨʋuh]	[ʃatɨʋuhjum] or [ʃatɨʋuhim] or
27.	[satoːʋuh]	[satoːʋuhjum] or [satoːʋuhim] or
28.	[aʈʰoːʋuh]	[aʈʰoːʋuhjum] or [aʈʰoːʋuhim] or
29.	[kunɨtrɨh]	[kunɨtrɨhjum] or [kunɨtrɨhim] or
30.	[trɨh]	[trɨhjum] or [trɨhim] or
31.	[akɨtrɨh]	[akɨtrɨhjum] or [akɨtrɨhim] or
32.	[dɔjitrɨh]	[dɔjitrɨhjum] or [dɔjitrɨhjim] or
33.	[tejitrɨh]	[tejitrɨhjum] or [tejitrɨhim] or
34.	[t͡sɔjitrɨh]	[t͡sɔjitrɨhjum] or [t͡sɔjitrɨhim] or
35.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨh] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨh] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨtrɨhim] or [pãːt͡sɨtrɨhim] or
36.	[ʃejitrɨh]	[ʃejitrɨhjum] or [ʃejitrɨhim] or
37.	[satɨtrɨh]	[satɨtrɨhjum] or [satɨtrɨhim] or
38.	[arɨtrɨh]	[arɨtrɨhjum] or [arɨtrɨhim] or
39.	[kunɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or	[kunɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [kunɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or
40.	[t͡satd͡ʒih] or [t͡satd͡ʒiː] or	[t͡satd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡satd͡ʒihim] or
41.	[akɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or	[akɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [akɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or
42.	[dɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒiː] or	[dɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [dɔjitəːd͡ʒihim] or
43.	[tejitəːd͡ʒih] or [tejitəːd͡ʒiː] or	[tejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [tejitəːd͡ʒihim] or
44.	[t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒih] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒiː] or	[t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [t͡sɔjitəːd͡ʒihim] or
45.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or or or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or [pãːt͡sɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or
46.	[ʃejitəːd͡ʒih] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒiː] or	[ʃejitəːd͡ʒihjum] or [ʃejitəːd͡ʒihim] or
47.	[satɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or	[satɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [satɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or
48.	[arɨtəːd͡ʒih] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒiː] or	[arɨtəːd͡ʒihjum] or [arɨtəːd͡ʒihim] or
49.	[kunɨʋanzaːh]	[kunɨʋanzəːhjum] or [kunɨʋanzəːhim] or
50.	[pant͡saːh]	[pant͡səːhjum] or [pant͡səːhim] or
51.	[akɨʋanzaːh]	[akɨʋanzəːhjum] or [akɨʋanzəːhim] or
52.	[duʋanzaːh]	[duʋanzəːhjum] or [duʋanzəːhim] or
53.	[truʋanzaːh] or [trɨʋanzaːh] or	[truʋanzəːhjum] or [truʋanzəːhim] or [trɨʋanzəːhjum] or [trɨʋanzəːhim] or
54.	[t͡suʋanzaːh]	[t͡suʋanzəːhjum] or [t͡suʋanzəːhim] or
55.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzaːh] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzaːh] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzəːhjum] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzəːhjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨʋanzəːhim] or [pãːt͡sɨʋanzəːhim] or
56.	[ʃuʋanzaːh]	[ʃuʋanzəːhjum] or [ʃuʋanzəːhim] or
57.	[satɨʋanzaːh]	[satɨʋanzəːhjum] or [satɨʋanzəːhim] or
58.	[arɨʋanzaːh]	[arɨʋanzəːhjum] or [arɨʋanzəːhim] or
59.	[kunɨhəːʈʰ]	[kunɨhəːʈʰjum] or [kunɨhəːʈʰim] or
60.	[ʃeːʈʰ]	[ʃeːʈʰjum] or [ʃeːʈʰim] or
61.	[akɨhəːʈʰ]	[akɨhəːʈʰjum] or [akɨhəːʈʰim] or
62.	[duhəːʈʰ]	[duhəːʈʰjum] or [duhəːʈʰim] or
63.	[truhəːʈʰ] or [trɨhəːʈʰ] or	[truhəːʈʰjum] or [truhəːʈʰim] or [trɨhəːʈʰjum] or [trɨhəːʈʰim] or
64.	[t͡suhəːʈʰ]	[t͡suhəːʈʰjum] or [t͡suhəːʈʰim] or
65.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰ] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim] or [pãːt͡sɨhəːʈʰim] or
66.	[ʃuhəːʈʰ]	[ʃuhəːʈʰjum] or [ʃuhəːʈʰim] or
67.	[satɨhəːʈʰ]	[satɨhəːʈʰjum] or [satɨhəːʈʰim] or
68.	[arɨhəːʈʰ]	[arɨhəːʈʰjum] or [arɨhəːʈʰim] or
69.	[kunɨsatatʰ]	[kunɨsatatyum] or [kunɨsatatim] or
70.	[satatʰ]	[satatjum] or [satatim] or
71.	[akɨsatatʰ]	[akɨsatatjum] or [akɨsatatim] or
72.	[dusatatʰ]	[dusatatjum] or [dusatatim] or
73.	[trusatatʰ] or [trɨsatatʰ] or	[trusatatjum] or [trusatatim] or [trɨsatatjum] or [trɨsatatim] or
74.	[t͡susatatʰ]	[t͡susatatjum] or [t͡susatatim] or
75.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatʰ] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨsatatim] or [pãːt͡sɨsatatim] or
76.	[ʃusatatʰ]	[ʃusatatjum] or [ʃusatatim] or
77.	[satɨsatatʰ]	[satɨsatatjum] or [satɨsatatim] or
78.	[arɨsatatʰ]	[arɨsatatjum] or [arɨsatatim] or
79.	[kunɨʃiːtʰ]	[kunɨʃiːtjum] or [kunɨʃiːtim] or
80.	[ʃiːtʰ]	[ʃiːtjum] or [ʃiːtjim] or
81.	[akɨʃiːtʰ]	[akɨʃiːtjum] or [akɨʃiːtim] or
82.	[dɔjiʃiːtʰ]	[dɔjiʃiːtjum] or [dɔjiʃiːtjum] or
83.	[trejiʃiːtʰ]	[trejiʃiːtjum] or [trejiʃiːtim] or
84.	[t͡sɔjiʃiːtʰ]	[t͡sɔjiʃiːtjum] or [t͡sɔjiʃiːtim] or
85.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtʰ] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtjum] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨʃiːtim] or [pãːt͡sɨʃiːtim] or
86.	[ʃejiʃiːtʰ]	[ʃejiʃiːtjum] or [ʃejiʃiːtim] or
87.	[satɨʃiːtʰ]	[satɨʃiːtjum] or [satɨʃiːtim] or
88.	[arɨʃiːtʰ]	[arɨʃiːtjum] or [arɨʃiːtim] or
89.	[kunɨnamatʰ]	[kunɨnamatjum] or [kunɨnamatim] or
90.	[namatʰ]	[namatjum] or [namatim] or
91.	[akɨnamatʰ]	[akɨnamatjum] or [akɨnamatim] or
92.	[dunamatʰ]	[dunamatjum] or [dunamatim] or
93.	[trunamatʰ] or [trɨnamatʰ] or	[trunamatjum] or [trunamatim] or [trɨnamatjum] or [trɨnamatim] or
94.	[t͡sunamatʰ]	[t͡sunamatjum] or [t͡sunamatim] or
95.	[pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatʰ] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatʰ] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatjum] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatjum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨnamatim] or [pãːt͡sɨnamatim] or
96.	[ʃunamatʰ]	[ʃunamatjum] or [ʃunamatim] or
97.	[satɨnamatʰ]	[satɨnamatjum] or [satɨnamatim] or
98.	[arɨnamatʰ]	[arɨnamatjum] or [arɨnamatjim] or
99.	[namɨnamatʰ]	[namɨnamatjum] or [namɨnamatim] or
100.	[hatʰ]	[hatyum] or [hatim] or
101.	[akʰ hatʰ tɨ akʰ]	[akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkjum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ ǝkim] or
102.	[akʰ hatʰ tɨ zɨ]	[akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojum] or [akʰ hatʰ tɨ dojim] or
200.	[zɨ hatʰ]	[du hatyum] or [duhatim] or
300.	[tre hatʰ]	[trɨ hatyum] or [trɨ hatim] or
400.	[t͡soːr hatʰ]	[t͡su hatyum] or [t͡su hatim] or
500.	[pə̃ːt͡sʰ hatʰ] or [pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ] or	[pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatyum] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatyum] or [pə̃ːt͡sɨ hatim] or [pãːt͡sɨ hatim] or
600.	[ʃe hatʰ]	[ʃe hatyum] or [ʃe hatim] or
700.	[satʰ hatʰ]	[ʃatɨ hatyum] or [ʃatɨ hatim] or
800.	[əːʈʰ ʃatʰ]	[əːʈʰ ʃatjum] or [əːʈʰ ʃatim] or
900.	[naʋ ʃatʰ]	[naʋ ʃatjum] or [naʋ ʃatim] or
1000.	[saːs]	[səːsjum] or [səːsim] or
1001.	[akʰ saːs akʰ]	[akʰ saːs ǝkjum] or [akʰ saːs ǝkim] or
1002.	[akʰ saːs zɨ]	[akʰ saːs dojum] or [akʰ saːs dojim] or
1100.	[akʰ saːs hatʰ] or [kah ʃatʰ] or [kaːh ʃatʰ] or	[akʰ saːs hatjum] or [akʰ saːs hatim] or or [kah ʃatjum] or [kaːh ʃatjum] or [kah ʃatim] or [kaːh ʃatim] or
1500.	[akʰ saːs pãːt͡sʰ hatʰ] or [pandaːh ʃatʰ]	[akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatjum] or [akʰ saːs pãːt͡sɨ hatim] or or [pandaːh ʃatjum] or [pandaːh ʃatim] or
10,000.	[dəh saːs] or [daːh saːs] or	[dəh səːsjum] or [daːh səːsjum] or [dəh səːsim] or [daːh səːsim] or
Hundred thousand	[lat͡ʃʰ]	[lat͡ʃʰjum] or [lat͡ʃʰim] or
Million	[dəh lat͡ʃʰ] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰ] or	[dəh lat͡ʃʰjum] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰjum] or [dəh lat͡ʃʰim] or [daːh lat͡ʃʰim] or
Ten million	[kɔroːr] or [karoːr] or	[kɔroːrjum] or [karoːrjum] or [kɔroːrim] or [karoːrim] or
Billion	[arab]	[arabjum] or [arabim] or
Hundred billion	[kʰarab]	[kʰarabjum] or [kʰarabim] or

The ordinal number "1st" which is [ǝkʲum] for its masculine gender and [ǝkim] for its feminine gender is also known as [ɡɔɖnʲuk] and [ɡɔɖnit͡ʃ] respectively.

Vocabulary

Kashmiri is an Indo-Aryan language and was heavily influenced by Sanskrit, especially early on. In modern times, Kashmiri vocabulary has imported words from English, Hindustani and Punjabi.

Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary

Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use the word yadi instead.

First person pronoun

Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa), as well as Nuristani languages, such as Askunu (âi vs iũ).

Variations

There are very minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims. For 'fire', a traditional Hindu uses the word [oɡun] while a Muslim more often uses the Arabic word [naːr].

Sample text

Perso-Arabic script

Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

[səːriː insaːn t͡ʃʰi aːzaːd zaːmɨtʲ . ʋʲaqaːr tɨ hoquːq t͡ʃʰi hiʋiː . timan t͡ʃʰu soːt͡ʃ samad͡ʒ ataː karnɨ aːmut tɨ timan pazi bəːj baraːdəriː hɨndis d͡ʒazbaːtas tahat akʰ əkis akaːr bakaːr jun]

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Sharada script

Verses by Lalleshwari:

𑆏𑆩𑆶𑆅 𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆃𑆗𑆶𑆫 𑆥𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆫𑆾𑆛𑆶𑆩 𑆮𑆶𑆤𑇀𑆢𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆘 𑆱𑆶𑆅 𑆩𑆳𑆬𑆴 𑆑𑆤𑆴 𑆥𑇀𑆪𑆜 𑆓𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆠 𑆖𑆾𑆫𑆶𑆩 𑆃𑆱𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆠 𑆱𑆥𑆤𑇀𑆪𑆱 𑆱𑆾𑆤𑇆

[oːmuj akuj at͡ʃʰur porum, suj maːli roʈum ʋɔndas manz, suj maːli kani pʲaʈʰ gorum tɨ t͡sorum, əːsɨs saːs tɨ sapnis sɔn.]

"I kept reciting the unique divine word "Om" and kept it safe in my heart through my resolute dedication and love. I was simply ash and by its divine grace got metamorphosed into gold."

𑆃𑆑𑆶𑆪 𑆏𑆀𑆑𑆳𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆤𑆳𑆨𑆴 𑆣𑆫𑆼 𑆑𑆶𑆩𑇀𑆮𑆪 𑆧𑇀𑆫𑆲𑇀𑆩𑆳𑆟𑇀𑆝𑆱 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆓𑆫𑆴 𑆃𑆒 𑆩𑆶𑆪 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆪𑆶𑆱 𑆖𑇀𑆪𑆠𑆱 𑆑𑆫𑆼 𑆠𑆱 𑆱𑆳𑆱 𑆩𑆁𑆠𑇀𑆫 𑆑𑇀𑆪𑆳 𑆑𑆫𑆼𑇆

[akuj omkaːr jus naːbi dareː, kumbeː brahmaːnɖas sum gareː, akʰ suj mantʰɨr t͡sʲatas kareː, tas saːs mantʰɨr kjaː kareː.]

One who recites the divine word "Omkār" by devotion is capable to build a bridge between his own and the cosmic consciousness. By staying committed to this sacred word, one doesn't require any other mantra out of thousands others.

See also

• Kashmir Valley
• Literature of Kashmir
• Kashmiri Wikipedia
• List of Kashmiri poets
• List of topics on the land and the people of “Jammu and Kashmir”
• Shina language
• States of India by Kashmiri speakers

Bibliography

• Chopra, R. M (2013). "Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir" (in en). The rise, growth, and decline of Indo-Persian literature (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Iran Culture House. OCLC 909254259. 
• Koul, Omkar N; Wali, Kashi (2006) (in en). Modern Kashmiri Grammar. Springfield: Dunwoody Press. ISBN 1-931546-07-X. http://www.koausa.org/iils/pdf/ModernKashmiriGrammar.pdf. Retrieved 1 July 2019. 
• Wade, TR (1888). A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language. SPCK. 

External links

• Bhat, Roop Krishen (1982). Kashir Kitab level 1 : (state level school reader in Kashmiri for non-Kashmiri speaking students). Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.0270/mode/2up. 
• Bhat, Roop Krishen (1988). Urdu Kashmiri Reader. JK Press. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.0907/mode/2up. 
• Ganjoo, Triloki Nath (1979). Kạ̄shur-Hindi Reader. Kạ̄shur Department, University of Kashmir. https://archive.org/details/kashurhindireadertrilokinathganjoopostgraddeptofkashmiriuniversityofkashmirsrinagar/mode/1up. 
• Grierson, George Abraham (1932). A dictionary of the Kashmiri language. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/grierson/. Retrieved 1 May 2020. 
• Handoo, Jawaharlal; Handoo, Lalita (1975). Hindi-Kashmiri Common Words. Central Institute of Indian languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.2232. 
• Handoo, Jawaharlal (1973). Kashmiri Phonetic Reader. Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.1685/mode/1up. 
• Hassan, Sheeba. "A pronouncing dictionary of Kashmiri language". https://dsalsrv04.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/hassan/. 
• Hindi-Kashmiri Conversational Guide. Central Hindi Directorate, Government of India. 1990. https://archive.org/details/HindiKashmiriVartalaapaPustikaCentralHindiDirectorate. 
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. 1. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988. http://www.chdpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/b82/html5forpc.html?page=0&fbclid=IwAR0Tf3Mz3UVKON4u83WZg7D7xQXMrhVmfEiypcWHXuwGkWRfDVYfKvitba8. 
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. 2. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988. http://www.chdpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/b20/html5forpc.html?page=0&fbclid=IwAR1W_jDPl_NHKVvAhasqpCf8uj1NHro7HCO-I8Ler-MAhhTFmW_yi_H-eZY. 
• Hindi-Kashmiri-English Trilingual Dictionary. 3. Central Hindi Directorate, Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Government of India). 1988. http://www.chdpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/b21/html5forpc.html?page=0&fbclid=IwAR2fPSVeXv1UqdzPVJ6noV8eTXB3MWC_Su7bm2JQFKdb0PsK1kfc6FYY7nQ. 
• Hinton, James Knowles (1885). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs & Sayings: Explained and Illustrated From the Rich and Interesting Folklore of the Valley. Bombay: Education Society's Press. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.41962/page/n3/mode/2up. 
• Hook, Peter E. 1976. Is Kashmiri an SVO language? Indian Linguistics 37: 133–142.
• "Indo Wordnet : A wordnet of Indian languages". https://www.cfilt.iitb.ac.in/indowordnet/. 
• Kamil, Amin (1966). Achar Zan. Walidarul Kitabat. https://archive.org/details/achcharzankashmiriainkamil_202003. 
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class1
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 2
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 3
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 6
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 8
• Kashmiri Language Textbook for Class 10
• Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri
• Koul, Ashok K (2008). Lexical Borrowings in Kashmiri. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323298. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1985). An Intensive Course in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 9780781801768. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.2240. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1995). An intermediate course in Kashmiri Language. Central Institute of Indian Languages. ISBN 8173420270. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.2241/mode/2up. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath (1992). A Dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies. ISBN 9788186323212. http://koshur.org/pdf/proverbs.pdf. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath (2000). kəːʃir dəpitʲ dikʃənəriː (A dictionary of Kashmiri Proverbs). Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.0070/mode/2up. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath; Talashi, Rattan Lal (1999). Punjabi Kashmiri Kosh. Bhasha Vibhag Punjab. http://www.panjabdigilib.org/webuser/searches/displayPage.jsp?ID=5806&page=1&CategoryID=1&Searched=. 
• Koul, Omkar Nath; Kumari, B Syamala (1996). Nursery Rhymes in Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.2244. 
• Koul, Omkar N; Bhat, Roop Krishen; Betab, Brij Nath (2010). English – Kashmiri Administrative Terminology. New Delhi: Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology. https://www.academia.edu/7725620.  * Koul, Omkar N; Raina, S.N.; Bhat, Roop Krishen (2000). Kashmiri-English Dictionary for Second Language Learners. Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/kasmirienglishdictionaryomkarkauln.rainas.n.roopkrishenbhatuniversityofmysore_202003_790_b. 
• Library and Information Science Glossary (English-Hindi-Kashmiri). Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. 2018. http://www.csttpublication.mhrd.gov.in/ebook/Library_and_Information_Science_English-Hindi-Kashmiri/html5forpc.html?page=0&fbclid=IwAR16gZHxNoSt7f_zrzKoEbKXV_nyafIMkvKwfkd7aLpwDyJI6i_c7uTdpl0. 
• "Neab", Kashmiri Language Literary Magazine
• Raina, Soom Nath (2011). An advance course in Kashmiri. Central institute of Indian languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.2242/mode/2up. 
• "Sangarmal", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
• Shauq, Shafi (2017). Kaesher Lugaat (A dictionary of the Kashmiri Language). Srinagar: Ali Mohammad and Sons. 
• "Soan Meeraas", Kashmiri Language Newspaper
• Subbiah, Pon (2000). Tests of Language Proficiency : Kashmiri. Central Institute of Indian Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.language.1968/mode/2up. 
• Tickoo, Jawahir Lal (2006). Kashmiri-English Dictionary. Indian Institute of Language Studies. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 1. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.510168/mode/2up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 2. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.510170/mode/2up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Kaul, J. Lal; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Mohiuddin, Akhtar (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 3. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.241981/mode/1up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 4. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.241982/mode/1up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 5. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.241983/mode/2up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan; Gowhar, Ghulam Nabi (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 6. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.241984/mode/2up. 
• Toshakhani, S. K.; Hajni, Mohiuddin; Pushp, P. N.; Beg Arif, Mirza Ghulam Hassan (1968–1980). Kashir Dikshanri. 7. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.510171/mode/2up. 
• the word koshur (𑆑𑆳𑆯𑆶𑆫𑇀) written on New Testament in Kashmiri (manuscript)