Social:Timeline of misinformation and disinformation in Canada

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This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

This timeline largely excludes COVID-19 misinformation in Canada and conspiracy theories related to the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada.

Disinformation is "false information that is purposely spread to deceive people".[1][2] Misinformation is information that is false or misleading, that contradicts consensus by experts in the field or by the "best available evidence".[3][4] Malinformation is content grounded in truth but presented in a misleading or exaggerated way, which can lead to misconceptions and harm. It manipulates factual elements to mislead audiences through distortion or selective emphasis.[2]

In January 2019, just days after publicly calling out technology giants, Prime Minister Trudeau announced the first federal financing of $7 million to respond to online misinformation and disinformation in Canada.

In August 2021, the Canadian Election Misinformation Project was launched by McGill University[5] in response to concerns about the rise of misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic and the increase in foreign interference in elections globally.[6][7][8] According to McGill's 2022 Media Ecosystem Observatory's report, Canada's information landscape is fragmenting, with citizens increasingly relying on diverse and potentially unreliable sources for political information, raising concerns about echo chambers. The rise of minimally moderated platforms has created a chaotic environment, making it harder to combat disinformation. A disconnect exists between the actual prevalence of misinformation and public perception, potentially eroding trust in democratic processes. Additionally, a growing segment of Canadians has become deeply skeptical of democratic institutions, operating in an alternate information reality disconnected from mainstream narratives.[8]: 4–5  According to the Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (CCCS) the annual cost globally of "misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation" (MDM) represents billions of dollars.[2]

2000s

2003

  • — A petition with 1,180 signatures was submitted to the House of Commons alleging that "massive amounts of chemicals"—adversely affecting Canadians across the country—were sprayed by the federal government.[9] Health Canada and Environment Canada refuted the claims.[9] The Environment Canada statement said that the term 'chemtrails' was a "popularised expression" and that petitioners were seeing contrails—airplane condensation trails.[9] The decades-old chemtrail conspiracy theory has been "widely debunked by scientists and experts, who emphasize there is no credible evidence to support the claims associated with this theory".[10]

2005

  • April 15 — The Boston Globe retracted a story published on April 13, 2005, about the opening of the annual commercial seal hunt in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The article, which graphically described the ice and water turning red with the blood of hundreds of seal cubs, was entirely fabricated. The actual first day of the seal hunt occurred on April 15, two days after the story was submitted by a Halifax-based freelance writer.[11] The seal hunt was a contentious issue, drawing attention from organizations like the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS). In response, the Globe published a follow-up article titled "Animal rights vs. Inuit rights," co-authored by an Inuk graduate student from Harvard University's Kennedy School of Governance. This piece highlighted the devastating impact on Inuit communities that relied on subsistence seal hunting for their livelihood. The article noted how a successful international media campaign by animal rights activists in the 1980s collapsed the sealskin market, affecting both commercial and subsistence hunting—a campaign that included the distribution of 12 million postcards depicting baby seals across both sides of the Atlantic.[12][13]

2010s

2014

  • — Canadian pro-Putin groups have promoted Russian narratives about the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation which marked the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian War.[14]
  • — The Canadian Anti-Spam Legislation (CASL) was unveiled. At that time, seven of the world's top spamming organizations were active in Canada.[15]
  • March 26, 2014 Canadian Inuk Alethea Arnaquq-Baril—writer and director of the 2016 Inuit-themed feature-length documentary film Angry Inuk—initiated a "sealfie" protest in response to Oscar host Ellen DeGeneres's support of the anti-seal-hunting Humane Society of the United States (HSUS).[16] During the Oscar ceremony, DeGeneres took a celebrity-filled selfie using a Samsung smartphone. Samsung pledged to donate one dollar for each retweet of the photo, which broke Twitter records and temporarily crashed the platform.[17] DeGeneres subsequently donated US$1.5 million to the HSUS, describing the seal hunt as "one of the most atrocious and inhumane acts against animals allowed by any government".[18] In response, the "sealfies" movement gained traction, rallying support for Inuit subsistence sealing.[19] HSUS spokesperson Rebecca Aldworth clarified that their protests targeted commercial sealing in Atlantic Canada by non-aboriginal people, not the "socially accepted Inuit subsistence hunt" in Canada's North.[17] [19]

2017

  • March 14 — Russian disinformation in Canada included the "Nazi-grandfather" conspiracy theory that claims that descendants of Nazis who are currently living in Canada have amassed "outsized political power."[20] Chrystia Freeland became a target of the hoax.[20] Canadian pro-Putin groups continued to promote false narratives about the Russo-Ukrainian War and the Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation.[14][21]

2018

  • June 9 — The G7 Rapid Response Mechanism (G7 RRM) was established in Charlevoix, Quebec at the "Charlevoix Commitment on Defending Democracy from Foreign Threats" by the leaders of the Group of Seven (G7) countries—United States, Canada, Japan, United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy.[22]: 2  The G7 RRM focusses on "addressing foreign-sponsored disinformation".[23][24]
  • October — The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (CSSS) was established with Scott Jones as the head.[25]

2019

  • January 25 — Trudeau criticized social media giants at a public event in Quebec City, with particularly sharp rhetoric against Facebook for spreading disinformation around the world.[26]
  • January 29 — The Canadian government announced a $7 million plan to fight online misinformation and disinformation ahead of the 2019 Canadian federal election.[27] The government also called on social media platforms to be more proactive in combatting disinformation by implementing policies.[28]
  • — In response to the increase in "false, misleading and inflammatory" online disinformation, the federal government created the Digital Citizen Initiative, to "support democracy and social inclusion in Canada".[29][30] The Digital Citizen Initiative is also supporting the Canadian Digital Media Research Network (CDMRN).[31][3]
  • June 8 — In the collage of dozens of individuals illustrating New York Times front-page story "The Making of a YouTube radical", journalist Luke LeBrun, identified 40% of the radicals as Canadian.[32][33][34]
  • July 16 — Anti-Trudeau hashtags #TrudeauMustGo topped Twitter's trends on July 16 after Trudeau criticized President Trump on July 15 for his racist tweets in which he told four U. S. congresswomen to go back to where they came from.[35][36] The tweets were generated at non-human rates by new accounts.[35][36] The Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab (DFRLab) said that this represented a volume which far exceeded the number and intensity of negative hashtags directed at other political parties.[37] It did not point to direct involvement of domestic political campaigns.[37]
  • October 29 A Global News report uncovered a hate group with 19,577 members called "Justin Trudeau Must Be Stopped Facebook" using the platform's feature, members-only Groups, a Facebook feature since 2010 that extreme online subcultures were beginning to exploit more often.[38] This Group's posts—which included hatred against Muslims and immigrants, and in some cases, called for Trudeau's assassination—led to its removal.[38]
  • The CPC chair, Bob Zimmer, of the House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics said that the 2015 Canadian federal election was largely "unencumbered by interference", although there were some attempts to "disrupt, misinform and divide", but these "efforts" were "uncoordinated", limited in number, and had little if any impact. However, by 2019, the threat to and vigilance of democracies around the globe had been heightened as tools that had been developed and used to strengthen civic engagement, [were] "being used to undermine, disrupt and destabilize democracy."[39]
  • — During the 2019 Canadian federal election there was not a lot of misinformation or disinformation but it was a threat to the public sphere, according to a 2020 Public Policy Forum journal report.[40]
  • — By 2019, due to 2014's CASL, all seven of the top spamming organizations that had been active in Canada in 2014, had been removed.[15]

2020s

2020

2021

  • January – Scientists and health experts established ScienceUpFirst—a digital science education campaign to counter misinformation—instigated by Timothy Caulfield and Nova Scotia Senator Stan Kutcher.[43][44] It has received funding from the Government of Canada[45] and the Canadian Association of Science Centres.[46][47]
  • July 25 — According to Canada's National Observer, dozens of accounts "tweeting at non-human rates" posted the #TrudeauMustGo hashtag shortly after Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's criticized Donald Trump for making racist comments.[36] The Observer described the anti-Trudeau hashtags as an emerging "wave of disinformation".[35] Fake X accounts—formerly Twitter— run be automated bots is a form of "aggressive social media manipulation", according to Social Media Intelligence Unit (SMIU) analyst.[36] Social Cartograph's Geoff Golberg, a social media manipulation researcher, said that hashtag #NotABot, which followed the previous hashtag, is also a "form of disinformation in itself". He added that those who push disinformation "tend to run a similar playbook when called out for engaging in coordinated inauthentic activity".[35]

2022

  • June — As Canada and the United States worked on developing domestic rare earth mining projects—minerals that are strategically critical to electronics manufacturing— spamouflage a Chinese government online disinformation program created social media accounts disguised as local residents, to protest against the mines in a effort to quell competition against China's rare minerals mining industry, according to a 2022 report by Mandiant, a cybersecurity research company.[48] A 2022 campaign called "Dragonbridge" by Madiant protested Canada's Appia Rare Earths & Uranium Corporation's new mine in Saskatchewan. Mendiant reported that these fake accounts, numbering in the thousands, have used the camouflage of non-political spam combined with pro-Chinese and anti-West propaganda since 2019. It is a Chinese government online disinformation program.[48]
  • Shortly before the 2022 Quebec general election, Coalition Avenir Québec Premier François Legault cautioned that adding more immigrants who do not speak French to Quebec would be suicidal for the French language.[49] At the same time, Jean Boulet, the outgoing Immigration Minister, said that "80% of immigrants go to Montreal, don't work, don't speak French, or don't adhere to Quebec's values."[50]: 26  Radio-Canada refuted the statement point by point, reporting that 77% of immigrants in Greater Montreal (89% outside it) know French and that their employment rate is comparable to or higher than that of Canadian-born residents.[51] Boulet was reprimanded by (CAQ) Coalition Avenir Québec Premier François Legault.[52][50]: 26 

2023

  • January — The 131-page report entitled "Fault Lines: Expert panel on the socioeconomic impacts of science and health misinformation" by the Council of Canadian Academies (CCA), sponsored by Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (ISED), said that Canadian political discourse has seen the emergence of post-truth rhetoric—traditionally associated with totalitarian regimes where objective facts are contested. This has led to the proliferation of misinformation, an erosion of trust in our institutions, decreased political engagement, and a deterioration of public discourse.[53]: xx 
    • Tenet Media Network's founder—Canadian right-wing conservative activist and influencer—Lauren Chen, allegedly received a contract from Russia Today (RT) to recruit other conservative commentators to influence U.S. public opinion. Included among those she recruited were Matt Christiansen, Tayler Hansen, Benny Johnson, Tim Pool, Dave Rubin, and Lauren Southern to be a part of the Tenet Media network.[54] These well-known right-wing commentators were duped into spreading Russian misinformation.[55]
  • May 9 — During the 2023 Canadian wildfires, with evacuations taking place in Yellowhead County, Alberta, Mayor Wade Williams tweeted on X, to tell residents to stop relying on Facebook for information on the wildfires as the platform was "full of false information".[56][57] According to a York University expert on wildfire communication, during disasters, online information can be "really reliable" but it can also be "straight-up misinformation" and even "disinformation where you have actors intentionally seeding incorrect information."
  • August 23 — Prime Minister Trudeau announced the creation of a dedicated team to counter disinformation sponsored by Russia, that will include collaboration with the G7 Rapid Response Mechanism (RRM).[58]
  • November 1 — Spamouflage accounts posted deepfake videos of Chinese dissident Liu Xin in an attempt to discredit him, according to Global Affairs Canada. The videos falsely portrayed Canadian politicians, such as Justin Trudeau and Pierre Poilievre, violating ethical and legal standards.[59][60]
  • November 9 — In a response to a question about how he would stop the "waterfall" of fentanyl coming into the United States if he became the next United States president in the 2024 election, Republican Party hopeful, biotech CEO Vivek Ramaswamy said that he would build a wall on both the northern and southern borders citing without evidence that Canada was a major source of fentanyl coming into the U.S.[61][62] While he was technically correct in saying that the amount of fentanyl seized at the Canada-United States border was enough to kill millions of Americans, that is due to the highly toxic nature of the drug—only 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of fentanyl can kill up to a half a million people.[61] From January to November 2023, 26,700 pounds (12,100 kg) were seized at the Mexican border compared to 2 pounds (0.91 kg) at the Canadian border.[61] Approximately 90% of illicit fentanyl is seized at official border crossings. United States citizens are the carriers in most cases.[61]
  • November 16 — A Canadian Security Intelligence Service publication "The Evolution of Disinformation: A Deepfake Future" specifically cautioned that technological advances to artificial intelligence (AI) such as GPT-3 provide an unprecedented advantage to the dissemination of disinformation through the deployment of deepfakes—AI-based media manipulations that digitally alter or fully generate images, voices, videos or text created to "deceive and inflict serious harm".[63]
  • November 22 — A tragic and unintentional car crash and the resulting explosion on the American side of Niagara Falls' Rainbow Bridge were repeatedly reported as a terrorist attack by some American media and politicians.[64][65]
  • December 20 — According to a 2023 Statistics Canada survey on online misinformation, 59% of Canadians reported very or extreme concerns about online misinformation, while 43% said that distinguishing truth from fiction online was more difficult than in 2000.[66]

2024

  • June 19 — At a speech in Ottawa, Canada, NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg called on NATO countries to build resilience to counter misinformation which is part of the assault against the NATO alliance, specifically in order to assist Ukraine in responding to Russia's illegal invasion.[67]
  • June–July — Canada's rightwing activists posted conspiracy theories on social media about the 2024 Jasper wildfire that the National Observer called a "disinformation firestorm", part of a larger "climate disinformation campaign" in Canada.[68][69]
  • July — The Royal Canadian Mounted Polices' Canadian Anti-Fraud Centre bulletin warned that bad actors were using advanced deepfake technologies to create convincing videos and audio files that impersonate "politicians, celebrities, and news anchors" with the purpose of committing fraud and/or spreading misinformation.[70]
  • August — Canadian respondents to The Dias's "Survey of Online Harms in Canada 2024"—the first Dias survey since the proposed Online Harms Act was tabled—said that the topics that they most commonly associated with misinformation include celebrities, politicians–particularly Donald Trump, Pierre Poilievre, and Justin Trudeau—and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[71] According to the poll, people who trust Facebook, YouTube, Twitter/X, TikTok and social media sources more than main stream media as news sources, are more likely to believe in misinformation. Based on self-identified association with left and right-leaning groups, 78% of respondents who self-identify as left-leaning were able to correctly identify misinformation in statements while 34% of those on the right were able to do the same.[71]
  • August 31 — Rapid Response Mechanism Canada (RRM Canada)—located at Global Affairs Canada—which leads the G7 Rapid Response Mechanism to monitor and protect against foreign state-sponsored disinformation, identified a Chinese government Spamouflage campaign in Canada on August 31, 2024 and has not stopped as of March 2025.[lower-alpha 1]. The campaign, which uses X, Facebook, TikTok and YouTube platforms, uploads 100 to 200 new posts a day.[72] The 2024-2025 campaign is similar to the 2023 campaign, but much larger. Doctored videos and deep fakes are used.[72]
  • September 4 — In their campaign to counter Russian interference in the 2024 United States elections and the 2024 US presidential election, the U.S. Department of Justice unsealed an indictment accusing Russian nationals of giving Tenet Media[73]—$9.7 million to "distribute content to U.S. audiences with hidden Russian government messaging".[74][75] Chen and her husband, Donavan, the co-founder of Tenet, knew their funding came from 'the Russians'.[76] During the 2024 Tenet Media investigation, it was revealed that Tim Pool, Benny Johnson and Dave Rubin, and other far-right influencers hired by Tenet, claimed they were unaware that it was a Russian disinformation campaign.[76][77][78]
  • September 13 — In a CBC Radio broadcast, PressProgress's, Luke LeBrun, said that Canada plays an "outsized role in far-right misinformation."[33]
  • September — U.S. authorities seized the RRN domain, that hosts the website Reliable Recent News, a Russian disinformation site that features anti-Trudeau and pro-Poilievre articles .[73]
  • The federal government produced a guidebook to help public servants combat disinformation.[29]
  • September 12 — U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced that the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada will partner in a "joint diplomatic campaign" to counter Russian disinformation and covert influence around the globe.[79][80]
  • 18 September — Timothy Caulfield—who focuses on debunking pseudoscientific myths and misinformation— raised concerns that politicians who spread conspiracy theories contribute to an "ever-accelerating conspiracy theory vortex", that draws attention away from real social issues to focus on "bogus concerns." He cites examples, of recent laws on chemtrails in the United States, Edmonton's municipal laws to protect against fifteen-minute cities, and laws against mRNA vaccines.[81]
  • 28 September — At the 28 September United Conservative Party (UCP) Town Hall in Edmonton, Danielle Smith, premier of the province of Alberta, responded to a concern that the municipality was being sprayed by so-called chemtrails[82]—a "long-held conspiracy theory" that airplane condensation vapours are purposefull nepharious acts.[83][84] Smith said, "Another person told me, if anyone is doing it, it's the U.S. Department of Defense."[85][83][84][86] While Smith said she had inquired about airspace regulations over the weekend, a Nav Canada statement confirmed they had received no queries from the provincial government.[84][86] According to an Associated Press article, a spokesman for the North American Aerospace Defence Command (Norad), said there are no NORAD flights involving the spraying of chemicals in Canada.[84][86] Timothy Caulfield said that in this "age of misinformation", conspiracy theories are detrimental to democracies globally. When a political leader does not identify a conspiracy theory as such and correctly answering that it is not true, it is "horrifying".[83] He added that Smith's comments contribute to the "normalization of conspiracy theories" such as "lizard aliens and a flat earth".[10]
  • September — Canada's G7 Rapid Response Mechanism (RRM), which focuses on countering foreign state-sponsored disinformation, reported that after the Canadian government had accused Indian involvement in the murder of Nijjar, certain Indian media outlets, organisations, and journalists had potentially influenced Canadian public opinion by promoting negative narratives against Justin Trudeau, Hardeep Singh Nijjar, and Canada–India relations.[87][88]
  • 2 November — During their annual general meeting, an overwhelming majority of the United Conservative Party (UCP)—Alberta's ruling party—voted on the resolution to strike carbon dioxide from the list of global-heating pollutants and recognize it as a "foundational nutrient for all life on Earth." The "foundational nutrient" narrative originated in the 1990s in the United States with the coal industry's Western Fuels Association's Greening Earth Society. Their videos, "The Greening of Planet Earth (1992) and "The Greening of Planet Earth Continues" (1998) claimed that higher levels of carbon dioxide would boost plant growth and create a greener world. While the claims were scientifically debunked, the narrative was widely distributed.[89][90][91]
  • December — According to a Canadian Digital Media Research Network (CDMRN) report entitled "Russian Funding of US and Canadian Political Influencers" on foreign influence and interference via Tenet Media, in Canada, Tenet as well as Canadian influencers who repackaged Tenet Media content, had a "significant following and influence".[92] However, the DOJ investigation and indictment garnered little attention in Canada indicating a critical weakness in Canada's information ecology—a significant number of individuals aware of the event were unfamiliar with the social media personalities involved. Conversely, many who recognized these online figures had no knowledge of the incident in question.[92]

2025

  • 1 January — The Canadian Medical Association 2025 Health and Media Annual Tracking Survey reported a troubling trend—more Canadians are putting off medical care, facing strain in personal relationships, and dealing with heightened anxiety fueled by false health claims.[93] The report cautioned that an overburdened Canadian health care system, faced a "double whammy", with the public being "bombarded with misinformation"—from debunked cancer myths to vaccine conspiracies—while dealing with gaps in healthcare access, leaving many vulnerable to online falsehoods.[93][94]
  • 12 March — A CNN article listed nine of the false claims Trump made about Canada in 2025 alone. [95]
  • 19 March — According to the final report of the Foreign Interference Commission public inquiry, disinformation is the "single biggest risk" to Canadian democracy, highlighting its potential to erode public confidence in democratic institutions, even if it has not significantly altered national election outcomes yet.[96][97]
  • 20 March — A Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives report said that the there has been a significant decline in the number of local news outlets which created a vacuum where misinformation can take hold.[98][99]
  • 22 March — A CBC analysis highlights the challenges posed by misinformation in U.S.-Canada trade negotiations, citing Ambassador Kirsten Hillman, economist Trevor Tombe, and Agri-Food Economic Systems founder Al Mussell. The prevalence of disinformation, such as exaggerated claims about Canadian tariff rates, has complicated discussions by creating public pressure on U.S. officials to address perceived imbalances that do not reflect actual trade terms. This dynamic risks prolonging disputes, as negotiators face conflicting demands to reconcile factual realities with politically charged narratives that misrepresent standard trade practices.[100]
  • 24 March — In a statement, the Chief Electoral Officer of Elections Canada, Stephane Perrault, said that in order to ensure elections integrity in the 2025 Canadian federal election, he has been in communication with X and TikTok and has received positive feedback related to the monitoring of and removal of "harmful misinformation about civic and electoral processes".[101]
  • 25 March — At the start of the election campaign, Rachel Gilmore, an award-winning journalist specializing in misinformation and extremism, appeared on CTV to debunk misinformation aimed at undermining Liberal leader Mark Carney’s legitimacy and authority. She clarified that, unlike in the U.S. where presidents are elected and inaugurated, Canada’s Westminster system makes the leader of the party with the most seats in Parliament the prime minister—no prime minister is directly elected, and there is no inauguration, only a swearing-in. Gilmore warned that many people form strong opinions about Canada’s democracy without understanding it, often confusing it with the American system—a trend she finds especially troubling when the misinformation originates in the U.S. [102]
  • March 31 — CTV cancelled a planned weekly fact-checking segment during the Canadian federal election campaign after online pressure from supporters of Conservative leader Pierre Poilievre.[103] The segment, hosted by journalist Rachel Gilmore, was abruptly canceled on March 31, 2025, following a social media backlash initiated by Sebastian Skamski, a senior campaign official for Poilievre, after her March 25 CTV segment aired. His tweet labeled Gilmore a "disgraced disinformation peddler" and was viewed over 400,000 times.[104][103] During the Freedom Convoy in 2022, Gilmour reported that protestors had allegedly been involved in setting an apartment building on fire, first taping all the doors shut; although Ottawa police labelled this claim disinformation, Gilmour never published a retraction.{https://www.junonews.com/p/ctv-hires-tiktoker-who-falsely-tied} CTV executives cited the "volume of pushback" as a distraction, despite internal emails praising Gilmore's performance and acknowledging the harassment campaign's bad-faith nature.[103] Gilmore had previously faced coordinated online trolling in 2022 after Poilievre criticized her reporting on his opposition to COVID-19 vaccine mandates.[105] She recently participated in a United Nations panel on digital threats faced by women in public life, where she discussed her experiences with harassment.[106] The cancellation has drawn condemnation from press freedom advocates, who warn it sets a dangerous precedent for capitulating to political pressure campaigns.[103]
  • March 28 – Marissa Sollows, director of communications for the Financial and Consumer Services Commission of New Brunswick, issued warnings about a Facebook-based disinformation campaign featuring Mark Carney announcing a cryptocurrency solution in response to the Trump tariffs. It sometimes includes a complete deep fake interview with Rosie Barton.[107]

Notes

  1. ↑ Spamouflage or Dragonbridge is a Chinese government state-sponsored foreign disinformation or information manipulation campaign that was first reported in 2019.[72]

References

  1. ↑ Lazer 2018.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 CCCS 2022.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Heer & Heath 2021.
  4. ↑ Vraga & Bode 2020.
  5. ↑ Mcdevitt 2021.
  6. ↑ Bridgman 2020.
  7. ↑ Bridgman 2021.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Bridgman 2022.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Guelph Mercury 2011.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Rhode 2024.
  11. ↑ Boston Globe 2005.
  12. ↑ Ejesiak 2005.
  13. ↑ Wenzel 1991.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Kolga 2019.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada 2024.
  16. ↑ Alethea_Aggiuq 2014.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Canadian Press & CBC News 2014.
  18. ↑ Childs 2014.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Rodgers & Scobie 2015.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Glavin 2017.
  21. ↑ Demchuk 2015.
  22. ↑ Charlevoix 2018.
  23. ↑ G7 RRM 2019.
  24. ↑ G7 RRM 2021.
  25. ↑ Scott-Jones 2018.
  26. ↑ Leblanc 2019.
  27. ↑ & Hemmadi 2019.
  28. ↑ EU 2019.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Canada 2024.
  30. ↑ Canadian Heritage 2021.
  31. ↑ IT World 2023.
  32. ↑ Roose 2019.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 LeBrun 2024a.
  34. ↑ LeBrun 2024b.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Orr 2019a.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Orr 2019b.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 DFRLab 2024.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Cain & Semple 2019.
  39. ↑ Parl 2019.
  40. ↑ Owen & Loewen 2020.
  41. ↑ Innovation 2024.
  42. ↑ Digital Society Lab 2020.
  43. ↑ "Digital campaign aims to counter COVID-19 conspiracies, misinformation". CBC News. 2021-01-27. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/digital-campaign-aims-to-counter-covid-19-conspiracies-misinformation-1.5889215. 
  44. ↑ "Scientists launch social media campaign to counter COVID-19 misinformation". Canadian Press. January 25, 2021. https://www.thestar.com/life/health-wellness/scientists-launch-social-media-campaign-to-counter-covid-19-misinformation/article_0603d84f-d8b6-5269-84ff-5616de4eed0a.html. 
  45. ↑ Davidson, Cole (2021-04-29). "Government of Canada funds two new projects to encourage vaccine uptake in Canada". https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/news/2021/04/government-of-canada-funds-two-new-projects-to-encourage-vaccine-uptake-in-canada.html. 
  46. ↑ Public Health Agency of Canada (2022-10-12). "Immunization Partnership Fund". https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/immunization-vaccine-priorities/immunization-partnership-fund.html. 
  47. ↑ Baig, Fakiha (25 January 2021). "'ScienceUpFirst:' Social media campaign targets COVID-19 misinformation with science". https://www.cp24.com/news/scienceupfirst-social-media-campaign-targets-covid-19-misinformation-with-science-1.5280755. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Murphy 2022.
  49. ↑ "Quebec premier: Adding immigrants who do not speak French would be 'suicidal'". Reuters. September 28, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/quebec-premier-adding-immigrants-who-do-not-speak-french-would-be-suicidal-2022-09-28/. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Lavigne, Mathieu (March 2023). Quebec Election Misinformation Project (Report). https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5ea874746663b45e14a384a4/t/641232839282647078a6b59e/1678914185387/Rapport+final_PDEQ_2023.pdf. Retrieved February 25, 2025. 
  51. ↑ Bendali, Nahila (September 28, 2022). "La Vérif: les propos de Jean Boulet sur l'immigration sont-ils exacts?". Radio-Canada. https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1920110/immigration-montreal-jean-boulet-emploi-francais. 
  52. ↑ Boulet, Jean (September 28, 2022). ""disqualifié" du poste de ministre de l'Immigration, dit Legault". https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1920110/immigration-montreal-jean-boulet-emploifrancais. 
  53. ↑ "Fault Lines: Expert panel on the socioeconomic impacts of science and health misinformation". Council of Canadian Academies (CCA) (Ottawa, Ontario): 131. ISBN 978-1-990592-19-5. https://cca-reports.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Report-Fault-Lines-digital.pdf. 
  54. ↑ Couts n.d.
  55. ↑ PBS 2024.
  56. ↑ Theriault 2023.
  57. ↑ Fawcett-Atkinson 2023.
  58. ↑ Government of Canada 2022.
  59. ↑ Shen 2023.
  60. ↑ Tunney 2023.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 Jiang 2023.
  62. ↑ VivekGRamaswamy 2023.
  63. ↑ CSIS 2023.
  64. ↑ Panetta 2023.
  65. ↑ AdamKinzinger 2023.
  66. ↑ The Daily 2023.
  67. ↑ NATO. "Speech by NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg at event hosted by the NATO Association of Canada and the Canadian NATO Parliamentary Association". NATO. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/opinions_226837.htm. 
  68. ↑ Fawcett-Atkinson 2024a.
  69. ↑ Fawcett-Atkinson 2024b.
  70. ↑ CAFC & RCMP 2024.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Lockhart, Laghaei & Audrey 2025.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Global Affairs Canada 2025.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Montpetit, Jonathan (2024-09-14). "Major Russian disinfo site featuring anti-Trudeau articles prompts calls for new focus at public inquiry". CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/investigates/russian-disinformation-1.7323128. 
  74. ↑ Cohen, Zachary; O'Sullivan, Donie; Perez, Evan; Lyngaas, Sean (September 4, 2024). "DOJ alleges Russia funded US media company linked to right-wing social media stars". https://edition.cnn.com/2024/09/04/politics/doj-alleges-russia-funded-company-linked-social-media-stars/index.html. 
  75. ↑ Spangler, Todd (5 September 2024). "U.S. Officials Allege Russian Operatives Illegally Provided $10 Million to Fund Videos by American Right-Wing Social Media Stars". Variety. https://variety.com/2024/digital/news/tenet-media-russia-rt-10-million-funding-right-wing-videos-1236131583/. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Dyer, Evan (September 11, 2024). "Washington's indictment shines a bright light on the dark corners of Russian disinformation operations". CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/russia-disinformation-tenet-putin-1.7319469. 
  77. ↑ "US conservative influencers say they are 'victims' of Russian disinformation campaign". The Guardian. September 5, 2024. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/article/2024/sep/05/tim-pool-benny-johnson-influencers-russia-disinformation. 
  78. ↑ Marchman, Tim; Mehrotra, Dhruv (6 September 2024). "What Right-Wing Influencers Actually Said in Those Tenet Media Videos". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. https://www.wired.com/story/influencers-tenet-benny-johnson-tim-pool-russia-propaganda-videos/. Retrieved 2024-09-15. 
  79. ↑ Schmunk 2024.
  80. ↑ Pugh 2024.
  81. ↑ Caulfield 2024.
  82. ↑ Nelson 2024.
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 CityNews 2024.
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 Wherry 2024.
  85. ↑ disorderedyyc 2024.
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 LeBrun 2024.
  87. ↑ Mago 2024.
  88. ↑ Seli 2024.
  89. ↑ Fawcett-Atkinson 2024.
  90. ↑ Noakes & Paradis 2024.
  91. ↑ DeSmog n.d.
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 CDMRN 2024.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 CMA 2025.
  94. ↑ CMA 2025a.
  95. ↑ Dale 2025.
  96. ↑ DFRLab 2025.
  97. ↑ Foreign Interference Commission 2025.
  98. ↑ Macdonald & Macdonald 2025.
  99. ↑ Saba 2025.
  100. ↑ Dyer 2025.
  101. ↑ Major 2025.
  102. ↑ Mediwake & Gilmore 2025.
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 103.3 LeBrun 2025.
  104. ↑ Skamski 2025.
  105. ↑ PierrePoilievre 2022.
  106. ↑ UN Web TV 2025.
  107. ↑ Paas-Lang, Young & Angelovski.

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  1. ↑ Women in Journalism 2024.
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