Astronomy:List of solar storms

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Short description: none
A coronal mass ejection

Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources).[1][2][3][4][5]

Background

Main page: Astronomy:Solar storm

Active stars produce disturbances in space weather and, if strong enough, in their own space climate. Science studies such phenomena with the field of heliophysics, which is an interdisciplinary combination of solar physics and planetary science.

In the Solar System, the Sun can produce intense geomagnetic and energetic particle storms capable of causing severe damage to technology. It can result in large scale power outages, disruption or blackouts of radio communications (including GPS), damage or destruction of submarine communications cables,[6] and temporary to permanent disabling of satellites and other electronics. Intense solar storms may also be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation[7] and to human spaceflight.[8] Geomagnetic storms are the cause of aurora.[9] The most significant known solar storm, across the most parameters, occurred in September 1859 and is known as the "Carrington event".[10] The damage from the most potent solar storms is capable of existentially threatening the stability of modern human civilization,[11][8] although proper preparedness and mitigation can substantially reduce the hazards.[12][13]

Proxy data from Earth, as well as analysis of stars similar to the Sun, suggest that the Sun may be also capable of producing so called superflares, which are as much as 1000x stronger than any flares in the historical record.[14][15][16] Other research, like models of solar flares[17] and statistics of extreme solar events reconstructed using cosmogenic isotope data in terrestrial archives, indicate otherwise.[18] The discrepancy is not yet resolved and may be related to a biased statistic of the stellar population of solar analogs.[19]

Coronal mass ejections and solar particle events

Further information: Astronomy:Coronal mass ejection and Astronomy:Solar particle event

Events affecting Earth

Proxy evidence

This section contains a list of possible events that are indicated by indirect, or proxy data. The scientific value of such data remains unresolved.[20][21]

  • 12400-12399 BCE Probable Miyake event, which would be the largest known and twice the 774-775 event.[22]
  • 7176 BCE Found in beryllium-10 (and other isotopes) spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings.[23] It unexpectedly appears to have occurred near a Solar minimum[23] and was as strong as, or probably even slightly stronger than the famous 774–775 CE event.
  • c. 5410 BCE[24]
  • 5259 BCE Found in beryllium-10 spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. At least as strong as the 774–775 event.[25]
  • c. 660 BCE[26][27]
  • 774–775 CE[28][29][30][31][32] This extreme solar proton event is the first identified Miyake event. It caused the largest and most rapid rise in carbon-14 levels ever recorded.[33]
  • 993–994 CE[34][31][35] It caused a carbon-14 spike visible in tree rings which was used to date Viking archaeological remains in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland to 1021.[36]
  • 1052 CE found in carbon-14 spike[37]
  • 1279 CE found in carbon-14 spike[37]

Direct measurements and/or visual observations

Date Event Significance
Mar 1582 Great magnetic storms of March 1582 Prolonged severe-extreme geomagnetic storm produced aurora to 28.8° magnetic latitude (MLAT) and ≈33.0° invariant latitude (ILAT).[38][39]
Feb 1730 At least as intense as the 1989 event but less intense than the Carrington event[40]
Sep 1770 [41][42][43]
Sep 1859 Carrington Event Also known as the Carrington Event, the most extreme storm ever documented by most measures; telegraph machines reportedly shocked operators and caused small fires; aurorae visible in tropical areas; first solidly established connection of flares to geomagnetic disturbances. Extreme storming directly preceded this event in late August.
Feb 1872 Chapman–Silverman storm minimal Dst* ≤ −834 nT[44][45]
Nov 1882 November 1882 geomagnetic storm [46]
Oct 1903 Solar storm of Oct-Nov 1903 An extreme storm, estimated at Dst -531 nT arose from a fast CME (mean ≈1500 km/s), occurred during the ascending phase of the minimum of the relatively weak solar cycle 14, which is the most significant storm on record in a solar minimum period. Aurora was conservatively observed to ≈44.1° ILAT, and widespread disruptions and overcharging of telegraph systems occurred.[47][48]
Sep 1909 Geomagnetic storm of September 1909 Dst calculated to have reached -595 nT, comparable to the March 1989 event[49]
May 1921 May 1921 geomagnetic storm Among most extreme known geomagnetic storms; farthest equatorward (lowest latitude) aurora ever documented;[50] burned out fuses, electrical apparatus, and telephone station; caused fires at signal tower and telegraph station; total communications blackouts lasting several hours.[51] A paper in 2019 estimates intensity of −907±132 nT.[52]
Jan 1938 January 1938 geomagnetic storm or the Fátima storm
Mar 1940 March 1940 superstorm Triggered by an X35±1 solar flare.[53] Caused significant interference to United States communication systems.[54]
Sep 1941 [55]
Mar 1946 Geomagnetic storm of March 1946 Est. Dstm of -512 nT[56][57]
Feb 1956 [58][59][60]
Sep 1957 Geomagnetic storm of September 1957 [61]
Feb 1958 Geomagnetic storm of February 1958 [61]
Jul 1959 Geomagnetic storm of July 1959 [61]
May 1967
Oct 1968 [62][63]
Aug 1972 August 1972 solar storm
Mar 1989 March 1989 geomagnetic storm Most extreme storm of the Space Age by several measures. Outed power grid of province of Quebec.[64] Caused interference to United States power grid.[65]
Aug 1989 [66]
Nov 1991 Geomagnetic storm of November 1991 An intense solar storm with about half the energy output of the March 1989 storm. Aurorae were visible in the US as far south as Texas[67][68]
Apr 2000 [69]
Jul 2000 Bastille Day solar storm
Apr 2001 A solar flare from a sunspot region associated with this activity and preceding this period produced the then largest flare detected during the Space Age at about X20 (the first event to saturate spaceborne monitoring instruments, this was exceeded in 2003) but was directed away from Earth.[69][70]
Nov 2001 Geomagnetic storm of November 2001 A fast-moving CME triggered vivid aurorae as far south as Texas, California, and Florida[71]
Oct 2003 2003 Halloween solar storms Among top few most intense storms of the Space Age; aurora visible as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe. A solar flare with x-ray flux estimated to be around X45 occurred from an associated active region on 4 November but was directed away from Earth.[72][73][74][75][76]
Nov 2003 Solar storms of November 2003 2021 study estimated Dstm of -533 nT[56][61]
Jan 2005 The most intense solar flare in 15 years with sunspot 720 erupting, 5 times from the 15th to 20th.[77][78]
Mar 2015 St. Patrick's Day storm
Sep 2017 Triggered by an X8.2 class solar flare[79][80][81][82]
Feb 2022 SpaceX Starlink satellites failure A mild solar particle and geomagnetic storm[83] led to the failure and reentry of 40 SpaceX Starlink satellites that had been recently launched and were in low Earth orbit (LEO)[84]

Events not affecting Earth

The above events affected Earth (and its vicinity, known as the magnetosphere), whereas the following events were directed elsewhere in the Solar System and were detected by monitoring spacecraft or other means.

Date(s) Event Significance
23 July 2012 July 2012 solar storm Ultrafast CME directed away from Earth with characteristics that may have made it a Carrington-class storm[85][86][87][88][89]

Soft X-ray solar flares

Further information: Astronomy:Solar flare

Solar flares are intense localized eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. They are often classified based on the peak flux of soft X-rays (SXR) measured by the GOES spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit (see Solar flare § Soft X-ray classification).

The following table lists the largest flares in this respect since June 1996, the beginning of solar cycle 23.[90][91]

No. SXR Class Date Solar cycle Active region Time (UTC) Notes
Start Max End
1 >X40 2003-11-04 23 10486 19:29 19:53 20:06 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
2 X28.57 2001-04-02 23 9393 21:32 21:51 22:03
3 X24.57 2003-10-28 23 10486 09:51 11:10 11:24 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
4 X24.42 2005-09-07 23 10808 17:17 17:40 18:03
5 X14.4 2001-04-15 23 9415 13:19 13:50 13:55
6 X14.36 2003-10-29 23 10486 20:37 20:49 21:01 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
7 X13.37 2017-09-06 24 12673 11:53 12:02 12:10
8 X12.97 1997-11-06 23 8100 11:49 11:55 12:01
9 X12.95 2006-12-05 23 10930 10:18 10:35 10:45
10 X11.96 2003-11-02 23 10486 17:03 17:25 17:39 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms

See also

References

  1. ↑ "The Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF)". Parsec vzw. https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/en/help/the-interplanetary-magnetic-field-imf.html. 
  2. ↑ Adhikari, Binod; S. Dahal; N. P. Chapagain (2017). "Study of field‐aligned current (FAC), interplanetary electric field component (Ey), interplanetary magnetic field component (Bz), and northward (x) and eastward (y) components of geomagnetic field during supersubstorm". Earth and Space Science 4 (5): 257–274. doi:10.1002/2017EA000258. Bibcode: 2017E&SS....4..257A. 
  3. ↑ Gonzalez, W. D.; E. Echer (2005). "A study on the peak Dst and peak negative Bz relationship during intense geomagnetic storms". Geophysical Research Letters 32 (18): L18103. doi:10.1029/2005GL023486. Bibcode: 2005GeoRL..3218103G. 
  4. ↑ Loewe, C. A.; G. W. Prölss (1997). "Classification and mean behavior of magnetic storms". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 102 (A7): 14209–14213. doi:10.1029/96JA04020. Bibcode: 1997JGR...10214209L. 
  5. ↑ T. Y. Lui, Anthony; Consolini, Giuseppe; Kamide, Yosuke, eds (2005). "What Determines the Intensity of Magnetospheric Substorms?". Multiscale Coupling of Sun-Earth Processes (1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 175–194. doi:10.1016/B978-044451881-1/50014-9. ISBN 978-0444518811. 
  6. ↑ Spektor, Brandon (6 September 2021). "An 'Internet apocalypse' could ride to Earth with the next solar storm, new research warns". LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/solar-storm-internet-apocalypse. 
  7. ↑ RadsOnAPlane.com
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Phillips, Tony (21 Jan 2009). "Severe Space Weather--Social and Economic Impacts". NASA Science News. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/21jan_severespaceweather/. 
  9. ↑ "NOAA Space Weather Scales". NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center. 1 Mar 2005. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/images/NOAAscales.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Bell, Trudy E.; T. Phillips (6 May 2008). "A Super Solar Flare". NASA Science News. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/06may_carringtonflare/. 
  11. ↑ Kappenman, John (2010). Geomagnetic Storms and Their Impacts on the U.S. Power Grid. META-R. 319. Goleta, CA: Metatech Corporation for Oak Ridge National Laboratory. OCLC 811858155. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/etsd/pes/pubs/ferc_Meta-R-319.pdf. 
  12. ↑ National Space Weather Action Plan. Washington, DC. 28 Oct 2015. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/final_nationalspaceweatheractionplan_20151028.pdf. 
  13. ↑ Lingam, Manasvi; Abraham Loeb (2017). "Impact and mitigation strategy for future solar flares". arXiv:1709.05348 [astro-ph.EP].
  14. ↑ Shibata, Kazunari (15 Apr 2015). "Superflares on Solar Type Stars and Their Implications on the Possibility of Superflares on the Sun". Boulder, CO: Space Weather Prediction Center. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/images/u33/final_shibata_SWW_2015.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Karoff, Christoffer (2016). "Observational evidence for enhanced magnetic activity of superflare stars". Nat. Commun. 7 (11058): 11058. doi:10.1038/ncomms11058. PMID 27009381. Bibcode: 2016NatCo...711058K. 
  16. ↑ Lingam, Manasvi; A. Loeb (2017). "Risks for Life on Habitable Planets from Superflares of Their Host Stars". Astrophysical Journal 848 (1): 41. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa8e96. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...848...41L. 
  17. ↑ Aulanier, G. (2013). "The standard flare model in three dimensions. II. Upper limit on solar flare energy". Astron. Astrophys. 549: A66. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220406. Bibcode: 2013A&A...549A..66A. 
  18. ↑ Usoskin, Ilya (2017). "A history of solar activity over millennia". Living Rev. Sol. Phys. 14 (1): 3. doi:10.1007/s41116-017-0006-9. Bibcode: 2017LRSP...14....3U. 
  19. ↑ Kitchatinov, Leonid; S. Olemskoy (2016). "Dynamo model for grand maxima of solar activity: can superflares occur on the Sun?". Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 459 (4): 4353. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw875. Bibcode: 2016MNRAS.459.4353K. 
  20. ↑ Mekhaldi, F. (2017). "No Coincident Nitrate Enhancement Events in Polar Ice Cores Following the Largest Known Solar Storms". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122 (21): 11,900–11,913. doi:10.1002/2017JD027325. Bibcode: 2017JGRD..12211900M. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A23705. 
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  22. ↑ Bard Edouard; Miramont Cécile; Capano Manuela; Guibal Frédéric; Marschal Christian; Rostek Frauke; Tuna Thibaut; Fagault Yoann et al. (2023). "A radiocarbon spike at 14 300 cal yr BP in subfossil trees provides the impulse response function of the global carbon cycle during the Late Glacial". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 381 (2261). doi:10.1098/rsta.2022.0206. PMID 37807686. 
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  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Mekhaldi, Florian (2015). "Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of ᴀᴅ 774/5 and 993/4". Nature Communications 6: 8611. doi:10.1038/ncomms9611. PMID 26497389. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.8611M. 
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  33. ↑ Reimer, Paula (August 2020). "The INTCAL20 Northern Hemisphere RADIOCARBON AGE CALIBRATION CURVE (0–55 CAL kBP)". Radiocarbon 62 (4): 725–757. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41. Bibcode: 2020Radcb..62..725R. 
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  35. ↑ Hayakawa, H. (2017). "Historical Auroras in the 990s: Evidence of Great Magnetic Storms". Solar Physics 292 (1): 12. doi:10.1007/s11207-016-1039-2. Bibcode: 2017SoPh..292...12H. 
  36. ↑ Kuitems, Margo; Wallace, Birgitta L.; Lindsay, Charles; Scifo, Andrea; Doeve, Petra et al. (20 October 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021". Nature 601 (7893): 388–391. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8. PMID 34671168. 
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  38. ↑ Hattori, Kentaro; Hayakawa, Hisashi; Ebihara, Yusuke (2019). "Occurrence of Great Magnetic Storms on 6-8 March 1582". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 487 (3): 3550. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1401. Bibcode: 2019MNRAS.487.3550H. 
  39. ↑ Víctor Manuel Sánchez Carrasco; José Manuel Vaquero (2020). "Portuguese eyewitness accounts of the great space weather event of 1582". Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate 10: 4. doi:10.1051/swsc/2020005. Bibcode: 2020JSWSC..10....4S. 
  40. ↑ Hisashi Hayakawa; Yusuke Ebiharaa; José M. Vaquero; Kentaro Hattori; Víctor M. S. Carrasco; María de la Cruz Gallego; Satoshi Hayakawa; Yoshikazu Watanabe et al. (2018). "A Great Space Weather Event in February 1730". Astronomy & Astrophysics 616: A177. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832735. Bibcode: 2018A&A...616A.177H. 
  41. ↑ Kataoka, Ryuho; K. Iwahashi (2017). "Inclined Zenith Aurora over Kyoto on 17 September 1770: Graphical Evidence of Extreme Magnetic Storm". Space Weather 15 (10): 1314–1320. doi:10.1002/2017SW001690. Bibcode: 2017SpWea..15.1314K. 
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  67. ↑ The polar onset and development of the November 8 and 9, 1991, global red aurora
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  77. ↑ Mitthumsiri, W.; A. Seripienlert; U. Tortermpun; P.-S. Mangeard; A. Sáiz; D. Ruffolo; R. Macatanga (2017). "Modeling polar region atmospheric ionization induced by the giant solar storm on 20 January 2005". J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 122 (8): 7946. doi:10.1002/2017JA024125. Bibcode: 2017JGRA..122.7946M. 
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  79. ↑ Bei Zhu; Ying D. Liu; Ryun-Young Kwon; Meng Jin; L. C. Lee; Xiaojun Xu (2021). "Shock Properties and Associated Characteristics of Solar Energetic Particles in the 2017 September 10 Ground-level Enhancement Event". The Astrophysical Journal 921 (1): 26. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac106b. Bibcode: 2021ApJ...921...26Z. 
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  90. ↑ "Top 50 solar flares". https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/en/solar-activity/top-50-solar-flares.html. 
  91. ↑ "The Most Powerful Solar Flares ever Recorded". https://www.spaceweather.com/solarflares/topflares.html. 

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