Astronomy:List of solar storms

From HandWiki
Short description: none
A solar prominence eruption

Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources).[1][2][3][4][5]

Background

Main article: Astronomy:Solar storm

Active stars produce disturbances in space weather and, if strong enough, in their own space climate. Science studies such phenomena with the field of heliophysics, which is an interdisciplinary combination of solar physics and planetary science.

In the Solar System, the Sun can produce intense geomagnetic and energetic particle storms capable of causing severe damage to technology. It can result in large scale power outages, disruption or blackouts of radio communications (including GPS), damage or destruction of submarine communications cables,[6] and temporary to permanent disabling of satellites and other electronics. Intense solar storms may also be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation[7] and to human spaceflight.[8] Geomagnetic storms are the cause of aurora.[9] The most significant known solar storm, across the most parameters, occurred in September 1859 and is known as the "Carrington event".[10] The damage from the most potent solar storms is capable of existentially threatening the stability of modern human civilization,[11][8] although proper preparedness and mitigation can substantially reduce the hazards.[12][13]

Proxy data from Earth, as well as analysis of stars similar to the Sun, suggest that the Sun may be also capable of producing so-called "superflares", which are as much as 1,000 times stronger than any flares in the historical record.[14][15][16] Other research, like models of solar flares[17] and statistics of extreme solar events reconstructed using cosmogenic isotope data in terrestrial archives, indicate otherwise.[18] The discrepancy is not yet resolved and may be related to a biased statistic of the stellar population of solar analogs.[19]

Coronal mass ejections and solar particle events

Events affecting Earth

Proxy evidence

This section contains a list of possible events that are indicated by indirect, or proxy data. The scientific value of such data remains unresolved.[20][21]

  • 12351–12350 BCE Probable Miyake event, which would be the largest known and twice the 774–775 event.[22]
  • 7176 BCE Found in beryllium-10 (and other isotopes) spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings.[23] It unexpectedly appears to have occurred near a Solar minimum[23] and was as strong as, or probably even slightly stronger than the famous 774–775 CE event.
  • c. 5410 BCE[24]
  • 5259 BCE Found in beryllium-10 spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. At least as strong as the 774–775 event.[25]
  • c. 660 BCE[26][27]
  • 774–775 CE[28][29][30][31][32] This extreme solar proton event is the first identified Miyake event. It caused the largest and most rapid rise in carbon-14 levels ever recorded.[33]
  • 993–994 CE[34][31][35] It caused a carbon-14 spike visible in tree rings which was used to date Viking archaeological remains in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland to 1021.[36]
  • 1052 CE found in carbon-14 spike[37]
  • 1279 CE found in carbon-14 spike[37]

Direct measurements and/or visual observations

Date Event Significance
Mar 1582 Great magnetic storms of March 1582 Prolonged severe-extreme geomagnetic storm produced aurora to 28.8° magnetic latitude (MLAT) and ≈33.0° invariant latitude (ILAT).[38][39]
Feb 1730 At least as intense as the 1989 event but less intense than the Carrington event[40]
Sep 1770 [41][42][43]
Sep 1859 Carrington Event The most extreme storm ever documented by most measures; telegraph machines reportedly shocked operators and caused small fires; aurorae visible in tropical areas; first solidly established connection of flares to geomagnetic disturbances. Extreme storming directly preceded this event in late August.
Feb 1872 Chapman–Silverman storm Minimal Disturbance storm time index (Dst)* ≤ −834 nano-teslas (nT)[44][45]
Nov 1882 November 1882 geomagnetic storm Comparable in size to the May 2024 storms.[46]
Oct 1903 Solar storm of Oct-Nov 1903 An extreme storm, estimated at Dst −531 nT arose from a fast CME (mean ≈1500 km/s), occurred during the ascending phase of the minimum of the relatively weak solar cycle 14, which is the most significant storm on record in a solar minimum period. Aurora was conservatively observed to ≈44.1° ILAT, and widespread disruptions and overcharging of telegraph systems occurred.[47][48]
Sep 1909 Geomagnetic storm of September 1909 Dst calculated to have reached −595 nT, comparable to the March 1989 event[49]
May 1921 May 1921 geomagnetic storm Among most extreme known geomagnetic storms; farthest equatorward (lowest latitude) aurora ever documented;[50] burned out fuses, electrical apparatus, and telephone station; caused fires at signal tower and telegraph station; total communications blackouts lasting several hours.[51] A paper in 2019 estimates a peak Dst of −907±132 nT.[52]
Jan 1938 January 1938 geomagnetic storm, or the Fátima storm A series of intense geomagnetic storms during the month of January 1938. Most powerful (25-26) comparible in intensity to the Oct 2024 storm, caused auroras across Europe.[53]
Mar 1940 March 1940 superstorm Triggered by an X35±1 solar flare.[54] Caused significant interference to United States communication systems.[55]
Sep 1941 [56]
Mar 1946 Geomagnetic storm of March 1946 Est. Dstm of −512 nT[57][58]
Feb 1956 [59][60][61]
Sep 1957 Geomagnetic storm of September 1957 [62][63]
Feb 1958 Geomagnetic storm of February 1958 [62][63]
Jul 1959 Geomagnetic storm of July 1959 [62][64]
May 1967
Oct 1968 [65][66]
Aug 1972 August 1972 solar storms
Mar 1989 March 1989 geomagnetic storm Most extreme storm of the Space Age by several measures. Outed power grid of province of Quebec.[67] Caused interference to United States power grid.[68]
Aug 1989 [69]
Nov 1991 Geomagnetic storm of November 1991 An intense solar storm with about half the energy output of the March 1989 storm. Aurorae were visible in the US as far south as Texas[70][71]
Apr 2000 [72]
Jul 2000 Bastille Day solar storm Caused by an X8-class solar flare aimed directly at Earth
Apr 2001 A solar flare from a sunspot region associated with this activity and preceding this period produced the then largest flare detected during the Space Age at about X20 (the first event to saturate spaceborne monitoring instruments, this was exceeded in 2003) but was directed away from Earth.[72][73]
Nov 2001 Geomagnetic storm of November 2001 A fast-moving CME triggered vivid aurorae as far south as Texas, California, and Florida[74]
Oct 2003 2003 Halloween solar storms Among top few most intense storms of the Space Age; aurora visible as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe. A solar flare with x-ray flux estimated to be around X45 occurred from an associated active region on 4 November but was directed away from Earth.[75][76][77][78][79]
Nov 2003 Solar storms of November 2003 2021 study estimated Dstm of −533 nT[57][62]
Jan 2005 The most intense solar flare in 15 years with sunspot 720 erupting, 5 times from January 15 to 20.[80][81]
Mar 2015 St. Patrick's Day storm
Sep 2017 Triggered by an X13 class solar flare[82][83][84][85]
Feb 2022 A mild solar particle and geomagnetic storm of otherwise little consequence[86] led to the premature reentry and destruction of 40 SpaceX Starlink satellites launched February 3, 2022 due to increased atmospheric drag.[87]
30 April – 12 May 2024 May 2024 solar storms X1.2(X1.3)-class flares[88] and X4.5-class flare.[89] The flares with a magnitude of 6–7 occurred between 30 April and 4 May 2024. On 5 May the strength of the solar storm reached 5 points, which is considered strong according to the K-index. The rapidly growing sunspot AR3663 became the most active spot of the solar cycle 25. On 5 May alone, it emitted two X-class (strongest) flares and six M-class (medium) flares. Each of these flares resulted in a short-term but profound disconnection of the Earth's radio signal, resulting in signal loss at frequencies below 30 megahertz (MHz).[90]

An extreme (G5) geomagnetic storm alert was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – the first in almost 20 years.[91][92] The final storms reaching the highest level of NOAA's G-scale before solar cycle 25 occurred in 2005 in May,[93][94][95] August,[96] and September, respectively.

With a NOAA rating of G5, a peak Dst of −412 nT, and aurorae seen at far lower latitudes than usual in both hemispheres, this geomagnetic storm was the most powerful to affect Earth since November of 2003.

Oct 2024 October 2024 solar storm Triggered by an X1.8 solar flare that produced a relatively fast CME.[97][98] The storm reached a peak Dst of −341 nT.[99] Auroras seen as far south as Cuba.[100]

Events not affecting Earth

The above events affected Earth (and its vicinity, known as the magnetosphere), whereas the following events were directed elsewhere in the Solar System and were detected by monitoring spacecraft or other means.

Date(s) Event Significance
23 July 2012 July 2012 solar storm Ultrafast CME directed away from Earth with characteristics that may have made it a Carrington-class storm[101][102][103][104][105]
1 Sep 2014 Caused a fast CME and a proton event.[106]
23 July 2017 5 years after the 2012 CME.[107]
15 Feb 2022 [108]
21 Oct 2025 [109]

Soft X-ray solar flares

Solar flares are intense localized eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. They are often classified based on the peak flux of soft X-rays (SXR) measured by the GOES spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit (see Solar flare § Soft X-ray classification).

The following table lists the largest flares in this respect since June 1996, the beginning of solar cycle 23.[110][111]

No. SXR Class Date Solar cycle Active region Time (UTC) Notes
Start Max End
1 >X28+ 2003-11-04 23 10486 19:29 19:53 20:06 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
2 X20 2001-04-02 23 9393 21:32 21:51 22:03
3 X17.2 2003-10-28 23 10486 09:51 11:10 11:24 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
4 X17 2005-09-07 23 10808 17:17 17:40 18:03
5 X14.4 2001-04-15 23 9415 13:19 13:50 13:55
6 X10 2003-10-29 23 10486 20:37 20:49 21:01 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
7 X9.4 1997-11-06 23 8100 11:49 11:55 12:01
8 X9.3 2017-09-06 24 12673 11:53 12:02 12:10
9 X9.0 2006-12-05 23 10930 10:18 10:35 10:45
10 X8.3 2003-11-02 23 10486 17:03 17:25 17:39 Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms

See also

References

  1. ↑ "The Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF)". Parsec vzw. https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/en/help/the-interplanetary-magnetic-field-imf.html. 
  2. ↑ Adhikari, Binod; S. Dahal; N. P. Chapagain (2017). "Study of field-aligned current (FAC), interplanetary electric field component (Ey), interplanetary magnetic field component (Bz), and northward (x) and eastward (y) components of geomagnetic field during supersubstorm". Earth and Space Science 4 (5): 257–274. doi:10.1002/2017EA000258. Bibcode: 2017E&SS....4..257A. 
  3. ↑ Gonzalez, W. D.; E. Echer (2005). "A study on the peak Dst and peak negative Bz relationship during intense geomagnetic storms". Geophysical Research Letters 32 (18): L18103. doi:10.1029/2005GL023486. Bibcode: 2005GeoRL..3218103G. 
  4. ↑ Loewe, C. A.; G. W. Prölss (1997). "Classification and mean behavior of magnetic storms". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 102 (A7): 14209–14213. doi:10.1029/96JA04020. Bibcode: 1997JGR...10214209L. 
  5. ↑ T. Y. Lui, Anthony; Consolini, Giuseppe; Kamide, Yosuke, eds (2005). "What Determines the Intensity of Magnetospheric Substorms?". Multiscale Coupling of Sun-Earth Processes (1st ed.). Elsevier. pp. 175–194. doi:10.1016/B978-044451881-1/50014-9. ISBN 978-0-444-51881-1. 
  6. ↑ Spektor, Brandon (6 September 2021). "An 'Internet apocalypse' could ride to Earth with the next solar storm, new research warns". LiveScience. https://www.livescience.com/solar-storm-internet-apocalypse. 
  7. ↑ RadsOnAPlane.com
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Phillips, Tony (21 Jan 2009). "Severe Space Weather--Social and Economic Impacts". NASA Science News. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/21jan_severespaceweather/. 
  9. ↑ "NOAA Space Weather Scales". NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center. 1 Mar 2005. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/images/NOAAscales.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Bell, Trudy E.; T. Phillips (6 May 2008). "A Super Solar Flare". NASA Science News. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/06may_carringtonflare/. 
  11. ↑ Kappenman, John (2010). Geomagnetic Storms and Their Impacts on the U.S. Power Grid. META-R. 319. Goleta, CA: Metatech Corporation for Oak Ridge National Laboratory. OCLC 811858155. http://www.ornl.gov/sci/ees/etsd/pes/pubs/ferc_Meta-R-319.pdf. 
  12. ↑ National Space Weather Action Plan. Washington, DC: Office of Science and Technology Policy. 28 Oct 2015. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/final_nationalspaceweatheractionplan_20151028.pdf. 
  13. ↑ Lingam, Manasvi; Abraham Loeb (2017). "Impact and mitigation strategy for future solar flares". arXiv:1709.05348 [astro-ph.EP].
  14. ↑ Shibata, Kazunari (15 Apr 2015). "Superflares on Solar Type Stars and Their Implications on the Possibility of Superflares on the Sun". Boulder, CO: Space Weather Prediction Center. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/images/u33/final_shibata_SWW_2015.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Karoff, Christoffer (2016). "Observational evidence for enhanced magnetic activity of superflare stars". Nat. Commun. 7 (11058). doi:10.1038/ncomms11058. PMID 27009381. Bibcode: 2016NatCo...711058K. 
  16. ↑ Lingam, Manasvi; A. Loeb (2017). "Risks for Life on Habitable Planets from Superflares of Their Host Stars". Astrophysical Journal 848 (1): 41. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa8e96. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...848...41L. 
  17. ↑ Aulanier, G. (2013). "The standard flare model in three dimensions. II. Upper limit on solar flare energy". Astron. Astrophys. 549: A66. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220406. Bibcode: 2013A&A...549A..66A. 
  18. ↑ Usoskin, Ilya (2017). "A history of solar activity over millennia". Living Rev. Sol. Phys. 14 (1). doi:10.1007/s41116-017-0006-9. Bibcode: 2017LRSP...14....3U. 
  19. ↑ Kitchatinov, Leonid; S. Olemskoy (2016). "Dynamo model for grand maxima of solar activity: can superflares occur on the Sun?". Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 459 (4): 4353. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw875. Bibcode: 2016MNRAS.459.4353K. 
  20. ↑ Mekhaldi, F. (2017). "No Coincident Nitrate Enhancement Events in Polar Ice Cores Following the Largest Known Solar Storms". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122 (21): 11,900–11,913. doi:10.1002/2017JD027325. Bibcode: 2017JGRD..12211900M. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A23705. 
  21. ↑ Usoskin, Ilya G.; Gennady A. Kovaltsov (2012). "Occurrence of Extreme Solar Particle Events: Assessment from Historical Proxy Data". The Astrophysical Journal 757 (92): 92. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/757/1/92. Bibcode: 2012ApJ...757...92U. 
  22. ↑ Bard Edouard; Miramont Cécile; Capano Manuela; Guibal Frédéric; Marschal Christian; Rostek Frauke; Tuna Thibaut; Fagault Yoann et al. (2023). "A radiocarbon spike at 14 300 cal yr BP in subfossil trees provides the impulse response function of the global carbon cycle during the Late Glacial". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 381 (2261). doi:10.1098/rsta.2022.0206. PMID 37807686. Bibcode: 2023RSPTA.38120206B. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Paleari, Chiara I.; F. Mekhaldi; F. Adolphi; M. Christl; C. Vockenhuber; P. Gautschi; J. Beer; N. Brehm et al. (2022). "Cosmogenic radionuclides reveal an extreme solar particle storm near a solar minimum 9125 years BP". Nat. Commun. 13 (214): 214. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27891-4. PMID 35017519. Bibcode: 2022NatCo..13..214P. 
  24. ↑ F. Miyake; I. P. Panyushkina; A. J. T. Jull; F. Adolphi; N. Brehm; S. Helama; K. Kanzawa; T. Moriya et al. (16 June 2021). "A Single-Year Cosmic Ray Event at 5410 BCE Registered in 14C of Tree Rings". Geophysical Research Letters 48 (11). doi:10.1029/2021GL093419. PMID 34433990. Bibcode: 2021GeoRL..4893419M. 
  25. ↑ O'Callaghan, Jonathan (13 September 2021). "Solar 'Superflares' Rocked Earth Less Than 10,000 Years Ago—and Could Strike Again". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/solar-superflares-rocked-earth-less-than-10-000-years-ago-and-could-strike-again/. 
  26. ↑ O'Hare, Paschal (2019). "Multiradionuclide evidence for an extreme solar proton event around 2,610 B.P. (~660 BC)". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 116 (13): 5961–5966. doi:10.1073/pnas.1815725116. PMID 30858311. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..116.5961O. 
  27. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi; Mitsuma, Yasuyuki; Ebihara, Yusuke; Miyake, Fusa (2019). "The Earliest Candidates of Auroral Observations in Assyrian Astrological Reports: Insights on Solar Activity around 660 BCE". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 884 (1): L18. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab42e4. Bibcode: 2019ApJ...884L..18H. 
  28. ↑ Miyake (2012). "A signature of cosmic-ray increase in ad 774–775 from tree rings in Japan". Nature 486 (7402): 240–2. doi:10.1038/nature11123. PMID 22699615. Bibcode: 2012Natur.486..240M. 
  29. ↑ Melott, Adrian L.; B. C. Thomas (2012). "Causes of an AD 774–775 14C increase". Nature 491 (7426): E1–E2. doi:10.1038/nature11695. PMID 23192153. Bibcode: 2012Natur.491E...1M. 
  30. ↑ Usoskin (2013). "The AD775 cosmic event revisited: the Sun is to blame". Astron. Astrophys. 552: L3. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321080. Bibcode: 2013A&A...552L...3U. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Mekhaldi, Florian (2015). "Multiradionuclide evidence for the solar origin of the cosmic-ray events of ᴀᴅ 774/5 and 993/4". Nature Communications 6: 8611. doi:10.1038/ncomms9611. PMID 26497389. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.8611M. 
  32. ↑ Edward Cliver; Hisashi Hayakawa; Jeffrey J. Love; D. F. Neidig (29 October 2020). "On the Size of the Flare Associated with the Solar Proton Event in 774 AD". The Astrophysical Journal 903 (1): 41. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abad93. Bibcode: 2020ApJ...903...41C. 
  33. ↑ Reimer, Paula (August 2020). "The INTCAL20 Northern Hemisphere RADIOCARBON AGE CALIBRATION CURVE (0–55 CAL kBP)". Radiocarbon 62 (4): 725–757. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41. Bibcode: 2020Radcb..62..725R. 
  34. ↑ Fusa, Miyake; Kimiaki Masuda; Toshio Nakamura (2013). "Another rapid event in the carbon-14 content of tree rings". Nature Communications 4 (1748): 1748. doi:10.1038/ncomms2783. PMID 23612289. Bibcode: 2013NatCo...4.1748M. 
  35. ↑ Hayakawa, H. (2017). "Historical Auroras in the 990s: Evidence of Great Magnetic Storms". Solar Physics 292 (1). doi:10.1007/s11207-016-1039-2. Bibcode: 2017SoPh..292...12H. 
  36. ↑ Kuitems, Margo; Wallace, Birgitta L.; Lindsay, Charles; Scifo, Andrea; Doeve, Petra et al. (20 October 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021". Nature 601 (7893): 388–391. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8. PMID 34671168. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Brehm, N. (2021). "Eleven-year solar cycles over the last millennium revealed by radiocarbon in tree rings". Nature Geoscience 14 (1): 10–15. doi:10.1038/s41561-020-00674-0. Bibcode: 2021NatGe..14...10B. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag%3A21905. 
  38. ↑ Hattori, Kentaro; Hayakawa, Hisashi; Ebihara, Yusuke (2019). "Occurrence of Great Magnetic Storms on 6-8 March 1582". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 487 (3): 3550. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1401. Bibcode: 2019MNRAS.487.3550H. 
  39. ↑ Víctor Manuel Sánchez Carrasco; José Manuel Vaquero (2020). "Portuguese eyewitness accounts of the great space weather event of 1582". Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate 10: 4. doi:10.1051/swsc/2020005. Bibcode: 2020JSWSC..10....4S. 
  40. ↑ Hisashi Hayakawa; Yusuke Ebiharaa; José M. Vaquero; Kentaro Hattori; Víctor M. S. Carrasco; María de la Cruz Gallego; Satoshi Hayakawa; Yoshikazu Watanabe et al. (2018). "A Great Space Weather Event in February 1730". Astronomy & Astrophysics 616: A177. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201832735. Bibcode: 2018A&A...616A.177H. 
  41. ↑ Kataoka, Ryuho; K. Iwahashi (2017). "Inclined Zenith Aurora over Kyoto on 17 September 1770: Graphical Evidence of Extreme Magnetic Storm". Space Weather 15 (10): 1314–1320. doi:10.1002/2017SW001690. Bibcode: 2017SpWea..15.1314K. 
  42. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi (2017). "Long-lasting Extreme Magnetic Storm Activities in 1770 Found in Historical Documents". Astrophysical Journal Letters 850 (2): L31. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa9661. Bibcode: 2017ApJ...850L..31H. 
  43. ↑ Yusuke Ebihara; Hisashi Hayakawa; Kiyomi Iwahashi; Harufumi Tamazawa; Akito Davis Kawamura; Hiroaki Isobe (2017). "Possible Cause of Extremely Bright Aurora Witnessed in East Asia on 17 September 1770". Space Weather 15 (10): 1373–1382. doi:10.1002/2017SW001693. Bibcode: 2017SpWea..15.1373E. 
  44. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi (2018). "The Great Space Weather Event during 1872 February Recorded in East Asia". The Astrophysical Journal 862 (1): 15. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aaca40. Bibcode: 2018ApJ...862...15H. 
  45. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi (2023). "The Extreme Space Weather Event of 1872 February: Sunspots, Magnetic Disturbance, and Auroral Displays". The Astrophysical Journal 959 (1): 23. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acc6cc. Bibcode: 2023ApJ...959...23H. 
  46. ↑ Love, Jeffrey J. (2018). "The Electric Storm of November 1882". Space Weather 16 (1): 37–46. doi:10.1002/2017SW001795. Bibcode: 2018SpWea..16...37L. 
  47. ↑ Hattori, Kentaro; H. Hayakawa; Y. Ebihara (2020). "The Extreme Space Weather Event in 1903 October/November: An Outburst from the Quiet Sun". Astrophys. J. 897 (1): L10. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab6a18. Bibcode: 2020ApJ...897L..10H. 
  48. ↑ Phillips, Tony (29 July 2020). "The Solar Minimum Superstorm of 1903". SpaceWeather.com. https://spaceweatherarchive.com/2020/07/29/the-solar-minimum-superstorm-of-1903/. 
  49. ↑ Love, Jeffrey J.; H. Hayakawa; E. W. Cliver (2019). "On the Intensity of the Magnetic Superstorm of September 1909". Space Weather 17 (1): 37–45. doi:10.1029/2018SW002079. Bibcode: 2019SpWea..17...37L. 
  50. ↑ Silverman, S.M.; E.W. Cliver (2001). "Low-latitude auroras: the magnetic storm of 14–15 May 1921". J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 63 (5): 523–535. doi:10.1016/S1364-6826(00)00174-7. Bibcode: 2001JASTP..63..523S. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=usafresearch. 
  51. ↑ M. Hapgood (2019). "The great storm of May 1921: An exemplar of a dangerous space weather event". Space Weather 17 (7): 950–975. doi:10.1029/2019SW002195. Bibcode: 2019SpWea..17..950H. 
  52. ↑ Jeffrey J. Love; Hisashi Hayakawa; Edward W. Cliver (2019). "Intensity and Impact of the New York Railroad Superstorm of May 1921". Space Weather 17 (8): 1281–1292. doi:10.1029/2019SW002250. Bibcode: 2019SpWea..17.1281L. 
  53. ↑ "The intensity and evolution of the extreme storms in January 1938". ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344971344_The_intensity_and_evolution_of_the_extreme_storms_in_January_1938. Retrieved 21 October 2025. 
  54. ↑ Hisashi Hayakawa; Denny M Oliveira; Margaret A Shea; Don F Smart; Seán P Blake; Kentaro Hattori; Ankush T Bhaskar; Juan J Curto et al. (13 December 2021). "The Extreme Solar and Geomagnetic Storms on 20-25 March 1940". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. doi:10.1093/mnras/stab3615. 
  55. ↑ Jeffrey J. Love; E. Joshua Rigler; Michael D. Hartinger; Greg M. Lucas; Anna Kelbert; Paul A. Bedrosian (2023). "The March 1940 Superstorm: Geoelectromagnetic Hazards and Impacts on American Communication and Power Systems". Space Weather 21 (6). doi:10.1029/2022SW003379. Bibcode: 2023SpWea..2103379L. 
  56. ↑ Love, Jeffrey J.; Coïsson, P. (15 Sep 2016). "The Geomagnetic Blitz of September 1941". Eos 97 (20): 18. doi:10.1029/2016EO059319. Bibcode: 2016EOSTr..97...18L. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Love, Jeffrey J. (2021). "Extreme-event magnetic storm probabilities derived from rank statistics of historical Dst intensities for solar cycles 14-24". Space Weather 19 (4). doi:10.1029/2020SW002579. Bibcode: 2021SpWea..1902579L. 
  58. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi; Y. Ebihara; A. A. Pevtsov; A. Bhaskar; N. Karachik; D. M. Oliveira (2020). "Intensity and time series of extreme solar-terrestrial storm in 1946 March". Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 197 (4): 5507–5517. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1508. 
  59. ↑ Meyer, P.; Parker, E. N.; Simpson, J. A (1956). "Solar Cosmic Rays of February, 1956 and Their Propagation through Interplanetary Space". Phys. Rev. 104 (3): 768–83. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.104.768. Bibcode: 1956PhRv..104..768M. 
  60. ↑ Belov, A.; E. Eroshenko; H. Mavromichalaki; C. Plainaki; V. Yanke (15 September 2005). "Solar cosmic rays during the extremely high ground level enhancement on 23 February 1956". Annales Geophysicae 23 (6): 2281–2291. doi:10.5194/angeo-23-2281-2005. Bibcode: 2005AnGeo..23.2281B. https://www.ann-geophys.net/23/2281/2005/angeo-23-2281-2005.pdf. 
  61. ↑ Usoskin, Ilya G.; Koldobskiy, Sergey A.; Kovaltsov, Gennady A.; Rozanov, Eugene V.; Sukhodolov, Timophei V.; Mishev, Alexander L.; Mironova, Irina A. (2020). "Revisited reference solar proton event of 23-Feb-1956: Assessment of the cosmogenic-isotope method sensitivity to extreme solar events". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics. doi:10.1029/2020JA027921. 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 Stanislawska, Iwona; T. L. Gulyaeva; O. Grynyshyna-Poliuga; L. V. Pustovalova (2018). "Ionospheric Weather During Five Extreme Geomagnetic Superstorms Since IGY Deduced With the Instantaneous Global Maps GIM-foF2". Space Weather 16 (2): 2068–2078. doi:10.1029/2018SW001945. Bibcode: 2018SpWea..16.2068S. 
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Hayakawa, Hisashi; Y. Ebihara; H. Hata (2023). "A review for Japanese auroral records on the three extreme space weather events around the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958)". Geoscience Data Journal 10 (1): 142–157. doi:10.1002/gdj3.140. Bibcode: 2023GSDJ...10..142H. 
  64. ↑ Hayakawa, Hisashi; Y. Ebihara; A. Pevtsov (2024). "Analyses of Equatorward Auroral Extensions during the Extreme Geomagnetic Storm on 15 July 1959". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 527 (3): 7298–7305. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3556. 
  65. ↑ R.G. Roble; P.B. Hays; A.F. Nagy (1970). "Photometric and interferometric observations of a mid-latitude stable auroral red arc". Planetary and Space Science 18 (3): 431–439. doi:10.1016/0032-0633(70)90181-9. Bibcode: 1970P&SS...18..431R. 
  66. ↑ Phillips, Tony (6 November 2021). "Back in the days when auroras were black and white". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=06&month=11&year=2021. 
  67. ↑ L. Bolduc (2002). "GIC observations and studies in the Hydro-Quebec} power system". Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 64 (16): 1793–1802. doi:10.1016/S1364-6826(02)00128-1. Bibcode: 2002JASTP..64.1793B. 
  68. ↑ Jeffrey J. Love; Greg M. Lucas; E. Joshua Rigler; Benjamin S. Murphy; Anna Kelbert; Paul A. Bedrosian (2022). "Mapping a Magnetic Superstorm: March 1989 Geoelectric Hazards and Impacts on United States Power Systems". Space Weather 20 (5). doi:10.1029/2021SW003030. Bibcode: 2022SpWea..2003030L. 
  69. ↑ Deffree, Suzanne (16 Aug 2013). "Solar flare impacts microchips, August 16, 1989". EDN. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=usafresearch. 
  70. ↑ The polar onset and development of the November 8 and 9, 1991, global red aurora
  71. ↑ Coleman, Brenda (9 Nov 1991). "Northern Lights Brighten U.S. Skies". AP News. https://apnews.com/article/255039b229f1384f62e6d5cf0eb927dd. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Katamzi-Joseph, Zama Thobeka; J. B. Habarulema; M. Hernández-Pajares (2017). "Midlatitude postsunset plasma bubbles observed over Europe during intense storms in April 2000 and 2001". Space Weather 15 (9): 1177–90. doi:10.1002/2017SW001674. Bibcode: 2017SpWea..15.1177K. 
  73. ↑ "Biggest Solar X-Ray Flare on Record - X20". NASA/ESA. 2001. https://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/hotshots/X17/. 
  74. ↑ =Nov. 5 - 6, 2001 Aurora Gallery
  75. ↑ Thomson, Neil R.; C. J. Rodger; R. L. Dowden (2004). "Ionosphere gives size of greatest solar flare". Geophysical Research Letters 31 (6): n/a. doi:10.1029/2003GL019345. Bibcode: 2004GeoRL..31.6803T. 
  76. ↑ Thomson, Neil R.; C. J. Rodger; M. A. Clilverd (2005). "Large solar flares and their ionospheric D region enhancements". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 110 (A6): A06306. doi:10.1029/2005JA011008. Bibcode: 2005JGRA..110.6306T. 
  77. ↑ Brodrick, David; S. Tingay; M. Wieringa (2005). "X-ray magnitude of the 4 November 2003 solar flare inferred from the ionospheric attenuation of the galactic radio background". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 110 (A9): A09S36. doi:10.1029/2004JA010960. Bibcode: 2005JGRA..110.9S36B. 
  78. ↑ Weaver, MichaelExpression error: Unrecognized word "et". (2004). Halloween Space Weather Storms of 2003. NOAA Technical Memorandum. OAR SEC-88. Boulder, CO: Space Environment Center. OCLC 68692085. http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/Services/HalloweenStorms_assessment.pdf. 
  79. ↑ Balch, Christopher (2004). Service Assessment: Intense Space Weather Storms October 19 – November 07, 2003. NOAA Technical Memorandum. Silver Spring, MD: Department of Commerce. https://www.weather.gov/media/publications/assessments/SWstorms_assessment.pdf. 
  80. ↑ Mitthumsiri, W.; A. Seripienlert; U. Tortermpun; P.-S. Mangeard; A. Sáiz; D. Ruffolo; R. Macatanga (2017). "Modeling polar region atmospheric ionization induced by the giant solar storm on 20 January 2005". J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys. 122 (8): 7946. doi:10.1002/2017JA024125. Bibcode: 2017JGRA..122.7946M. 
  81. ↑ Bieber, J. W.; J. Clem; P. Evenson; R. Pyle; A. Sáiz; D. Ruffolo (2013). "Giant Ground Level Enhancement of Relativistic Solar Protons on 2005 January 20. I. Spaceship Earth Observations". Astrophysical Journal 771 (92): 92. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/771/2/92. Bibcode: 2013ApJ...771...92B. 
  82. ↑ Bei Zhu; Ying D. Liu; Ryun-Young Kwon; Meng Jin; L. C. Lee; Xiaojun Xu (2021). "Shock Properties and Associated Characteristics of Solar Energetic Particles in the 2017 September 10 Ground-level Enhancement Event". The Astrophysical Journal 921 (1): 26. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac106b. Bibcode: 2021ApJ...921...26Z. 
  83. ↑ Junwei Zhao; Wei Liu; Jean-Claude Vial (2021). "White-light Continuum Observation of the Off-limb Loops of the SOL2017-09-10 X8.2 Flare: Temporal and Spatial Variations". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 921 (2): L26. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac3339. Bibcode: 2021ApJ...921L..26Z. 
  84. ↑ Wang Li; Dongsheng Zhao; Changyong He; Craig M. Hancock; Yi Shen; Kefei Zhang (2022). "Spatial-Temporal Behaviors of Large-Scale Ionospheric Perturbations During Severe Geomagnetic Storms on September 7–8 2017 Using the GNSS, SWARM and TIE-GCM Techniques". Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics 127 (3). doi:10.1029/2021JA029830. Bibcode: 2022JGRA..12729830L. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/21648116. 
  85. ↑ Jianfeng Li; Yongqian Wang; Shiqi Yang; Fang Wang (2022). "Characteristics of Low-Latitude Ionosphere Activity and Deterioration of TEC Model during the 7–9 September 2017 Magnetic Storm". Atmosphere 13 (9): 1365. doi:10.3390/atmos13091365. Bibcode: 2022Atmos..13.1365L. 
  86. ↑ Phillips, Tony (9 February 2022). "The Starlink Incident". https://spaceweatherarchive.com/2022/02/09/the-starlink-incident/. 
  87. ↑ Wattles, Jackie (9 February 2022). "SpaceX will lose up to 40 satellites it just launched due to a solar storm". CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/09/tech/spacex-starlink-solar-storm-satellites-scn/. 
  88. ↑ Scientists recorded 7 powerful flares on the Sun during the day, which provoked communication interruptions on Earth. 06.05.2024, 5:44 pm
  89. ↑ Three X-class flares occurred on the Sun: Svetlana Anisimova. 09.05.2024
  90. ↑ Two powerful flares recorded on the Sun: when will Earth feel the effects?
  91. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://www.spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=10&month=05&year=2024. 
  92. ↑ "Geomagnetic storm on Earth reaches extreme levels first time since 2005" (in en). https://news.az/news/geomagnetic-storm-on-earth-reaches-extreme-levels-first-time-since-2005-. 
  93. ↑ "NOAA Issues Space Weather Warning" (in en). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050516061210.htm. 
  94. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://www.spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=15&month=05&year=2005. 
  95. ↑ "NOAA Planetary Kp Index Archive (May 14-17, 2005)". https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/images/Archief/2005/plots/kp/20050516_kp.gif. 
  96. ↑ "NOAA Planetary Kp Index Archive (August 23-26, 2005)". https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/images/Archief/2005/plots/kp/20050825_kp.gif. 
  97. ↑ "R3 (Strong) HF Radio Blackout Event". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 9 October 2024. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/news/r3-strong-hf-radio-blackout-event. 
  98. ↑ "G4 (Severe) Storm Watch for 10-11 October". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 9 October 2024. https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/news/g4-severe-storm-watch-10-11-october. 
  99. ↑ "Real-time Dst Index". https://wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dst_realtime/202410/index.html. 
  100. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=12&month=10&year=2024. 
  101. ↑ Baker, D. N.; X. Li; A. Pulkkinen; C. M. Ngwira; M. L. Mays; A. B. Galvin; K. D. C. Simunac (2013). "A major solar eruptive event in July 2012: Defining extreme space weather scenarios". Space Weather 11 (10): 585–91. doi:10.1002/swe.20097. Bibcode: 2013SpWea..11..585B. 
  102. ↑ Ngwira, Chigomezyo M.; A. Pulkkinen; M. Leila Mays; M. M. Kuznetsova; A. B. Galvin; K. Simunac; D. N. Baker; X. Li et al. (2013). "Simulation of the 23 July 2012 extreme space weather event: What if this extremely rare CME was Earth directed?". Space Weather 11 (12): 671–9. doi:10.1002/2013SW000990. Bibcode: 2013SpWea..11..671N. 
  103. ↑ Ying D. Liu; J. G. Luhmann; P. Kajdič; E. K.J. Kilpua; N. Lugaz; N. V. Nitta; C. Möstl; B. Lavraud et al. (2014). "Observations of an extreme storm in interplanetary space caused by successive coronal mass ejections". Nature Communications 5 (3481): 3481. doi:10.1038/ncomms4481. PMID 24642508. Bibcode: 2014NatCo...5.3481L. 
  104. ↑ Phillips, Tony (2 May 2014). "Carrington-class CME Narrowly Misses Earth". NASA Science News. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/02may_superstorm/. 
  105. ↑ Phillips, Dr. Tony (23 July 2014). "Near Miss: The Solar Superstorm of July 2012". NASA. https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/23jul_superstorm/. 
  106. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=02&month=09&year=2014. 
  107. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=23&month=07&year=2017. 
  108. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=16&month=02&year=2022. 
  109. ↑ "Spaceweather.com Time Machine". https://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=22&month=10&year=2025. 
  110. ↑ "Top 50 solar flares". https://www.spaceweatherlive.com/en/solar-activity/top-50-solar-flares.html. 
  111. ↑ "The Most Powerful Solar Flares ever Recorded". https://www.spaceweather.com/solarflares/topflares.html. 

Further reading



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Astronomy:List_of_solar_storms&oldid=3926968"