Biography:Marvin Minsky

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Marvin Minsky
Minsky in 2008
Born
Marvin Lee Minsky[1]

(1927-08-09)August 9, 1927[1]
New York City, U.S.[1]
DiedJanuary 24, 2016(2016-01-24) (aged 88)[1]
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.[1]
EducationHarvard University (BA)
Princeton University (MA, PhD)
Known for
Spouse(s)
Gloria Rudisch (m. 1952)
Children3
Awards
  • Turing Award (1969)
  • Japan Prize (1990)
  • AAAI Fellow (1990)[9]
  • IJCAI Award for Research Excellence (1991)
  • Benjamin Franklin Medal (2001)
  • BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (2013)
Scientific career
Fields
InstitutionsMassachusetts Institute of Technology
ThesisTheory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain Model Problem (1954)
Doctoral advisorAlbert W. Tucker[10][11]
Doctoral students
Websiteweb.media.mit.edu/~minsky

Marvin Minsky (August 9, 1927 – January 24, 2016)[1] was an American mathematician who was Harvard- and Princeton-trained and used his training as a foundation for research in cognitive and computer science aspects of artificial intelligence (AI). After three years as a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows, Minsky joined the faculty at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1958 and spent the rest of his career at that institution. There, he co-founded MIT's AI laboratory, among other initiatives, and wrote extensively about AI and philosophy.[13][14][15][16] He, computer scientist John McCarthy,[citation needed] and others have been considered "fathers of AI".[17][note 1] At the time he was made emeritus, Minsky was the Toshiba Professor of Media Art & Sciences at MIT.[18]

Minsky received many accolades and honors for his work, including the ACM Turing Award in 1969,[1][17] the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1982,[19] the Japan Prize in 1990,[20] the Benjamin Franklin Medal in 2001,[21] and of the past-present-future trio of Dan David Prizes in 2014, the "Future"-oriented prize for "Artificial Intelligence, the Digital Mind".[22][23] He was elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1973[24][25] and the U.S. National Academy of Engineering in 1989,[18][25] and was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI Hall of Fame for contributions to AI and intelligent systems in 2011.[26]

Early life and education

Marvin Lee Minsky was born on August 9, 1927,[1] into a Jewish family in New York City. His mother was Fannie (Reiser), a Zionist activist, and his father was Henry, an eye surgeon.[27][28][16] Minsky attended the Ethical Culture Fieldston School[citation needed] and the Bronx High School of Science.[citation needed] He later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts.[citation needed] He served in the U.S. Navy from 1944 to 1945[citation needed] before returning to his education and earning a A.B. in mathematics from Harvard University (1950)[citation needed] and a Ph.D. in mathematics from Princeton University (1954). His doctoral dissertation was titled "Theory of neural-analog reinforcement systems and its application to the brain-model problem".[29][30][31]

Career

Minsky began his academic career as a Junior Fellow of the Harvard Society of Fellows from 1954 to 1957.[32][33] He joined the MIT faculty in 1958 and remained there until his death.[citation needed] He joined the staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory in 1958; a year later, he and John McCarthy initiated what was, as of 2003, named the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.[34][35]

At the time of his death, Minsky was the Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences as well as professor of electrical engineering and computer science at MIT.[citation needed][verification needed]

Contributions in computer science

3D profile of a coin (partial) measured with a modern confocal white light microscope

Minsky's inventions include the first head-mounted graphical display (1963)[25][third-party source needed] and the confocal microscope[3][third-party source needed][note 2] (1957, a predecessor to today's widely used confocal laser scanning microscope).[citation needed] With Seymour Papert, he developed the first Logo programming language-driven "turtle robot".[citation needed] In 1951, Minsky built the first randomly wired neural network learning machine, SNARC.[citation needed] In 1962, he worked on small universal Turing machines and published his well-known 7-state, 4-symbol machine.[36]

Minsky and Papert's book Perceptrons attacked the work of Frank Rosenblatt on Perceptrons and became the foundational work in the analysis of artificial neural networks. The book is the center of a controversy in the history of AI, as some claim it greatly discouraged research on neural networks in the 1970s and contributed to the so-called "AI winter".[37] Minsky also developed several other AI models.[citation needed] His paper, "A Framework for Representing Knowledge,"[38][full citation needed] created a new paradigm in knowledge representation.[according to whom?][citation needed] Perceptrons is now viewed as of more historical than practical interest, but his theory of frames was in wide use as of 1975.[citation needed][needs update][39][full citation needed]

The MA-3 Robotic Manipulator Arm, on display at MIT Museum
  • General view
    General view
  • The Belgrade Hand
    The Belgrade Hand

In the early 1970s, at the MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab, Minsky and Papert began to develop what came to be known as the Society of Mind theory.[citation needed] The theory describes intelligence as the possible product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts.[citation needed] Minsky said that ideas for the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a videocamera, and a computer to build with children's blocks.[citation needed] In 1986, he published The Society of Mind,[full citation needed] a comprehensive book on the theory which—unlike most of his previously published work[citation needed]—was written for the general public.[citation needed]

In 2006, Minsky published The Emotion Machine, a book that critiques many popular theories of how the human mind works, and suggests alternative theories, often replacing simple ideas with more complex ones.[40][third-party source needed]

Miscellaneous interests

Minsky examined the possibility that extraterrestrial life may think like humans, thus permitting communication.[41]

Minsky invented a "gravity machine" that rings a bell if the gravitational constant changes, a theoretical possibility not expected to occur in the foreseeable future.[4]

Minsky was an adviser to Stanley Kubrick on his movie 2001: A Space Odyssey; one of the movie's characters, Victor Kaminski, was named in Minsky's honor.[42][43] Arthur C. Clarke's novel of the same name explicitly mentions Minsky. In it, he achieves a crucial breakthrough in artificial intelligence in the then-future 1980s, paving the way for HAL 9000 in the early 21st century:

In the 1980s, Minsky and Good had shown how artificial neural networks could be generated automatically—self replicated—in accordance with any arbitrary learning program. Artificial brains could be grown by a process strikingly analogous to the development of a human brain. In any given case, the precise details would never be known, and even if they were, they would be millions of times too complex for human understanding.[44][full citation needed]

In "The Law of Non-Contradiction", a season 3 episode of the television anthology series Fargo, at least two allusions to Minsky are made.[citation needed] The first is through the depiction of a "useless machine", a device Minsky invented as a philosophical joke[citation needed] and of which Claude Shannon, Minsky's mentor at Bell Labs, built the first working prototype.[45][verification needed] The second is through the depiction of the animation of a robot called "minsky", a character in the science fiction novel The Planet Wyh.[clarification needed][citation needed]

Selected bibliography

Awards and affiliations

Minsky won the Turing Award, "computer science's highest prize", in 1969,[1][17] the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1982,[19] the Japan Prize in 1990,[20] the IJCAI Award for Research Excellence for 1991,[citation needed] and the Benjamin Franklin Medal from the Franklin Institute in 2001.[21] In 2006, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for co-founding the field of artificial intelligence, creating early neural networks and robots, and developing theories of human and machine cognition."[46] In 2011, Minsky was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI Hall of Fame for "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems".[26] In 2014, from the past-present-future trio of Dan David Prizes, Minsky was awarded the "Future"-oriented prize, for "Artificial Intelligence, the Digital Mind".[22][23] He was also awarded with the 2013 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the Information and Communication Technologies category.[47]

Minsky was elected to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1973[24][25] and to the U.S. National Academy of Engineering in 1989.[18][25]

Other organizations with which he was affiliated include:

  • Extropy Institute's Council of Advisors;[48]
  • Alcor Life Extension Foundation's Scientific Advisory Board;[49] and
  • kynamatrix Research Network's Board of Directors.[50]

Media appearances

  • Machine Dreams (1988)
  • Future Fantastic (1996)

Personal life

The Minskytron or "Three Position Display" running on the Computer History Museum's PDP-1, 2007

In 1952, Minsky married pediatrician Gloria Rudisch; together they had three children.[51] Minsky was a talented improvisational pianist,[52] and published musings on the relations between music and psychology.[citation needed]

Opinions

Minsky was an atheist.[53] He was a signatory to the Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics.[54]

He was a critic of the Loebner Prize for conversational robots,[55] and argued that a fundamental difference between humans and machines is that while humans are machines, they are machines in which intelligence emerges from the interplay of the many unintelligent but semi-autonomous agents the brain comprises.[1] He argued that "somewhere down the line, some computers will become more intelligent than most people", but that it was very hard to predict how fast progress would be.[56] He cautioned that an artificial superintelligence designed to solve an innocuous mathematical problem might decide to assume control of Earth's resources to build supercomputers to help achieve its goal,[57] but believed that such scenarios are "hard to take seriously" because he felt confident that AI would be well tested before being deployed.[58]

Association with Jeffrey Epstein

Minsky received a $100,000 research grant from Jeffrey Epstein in 2002, four years before Epstein's first arrest for sex offenses; it was the first from Epstein to MIT. Minsky received no further research grants from him.[59][60]

Minsky organized two academic symposia on Epstein's private island Little Saint James, one in 2002 and another in 2011, after Epstein was a registered sex offender.[61] Virginia Roberts Giuffre said Epstein sent her to have sex with Minsky;[62] Minsky's widow, Gloria Rudisch, has denied this.[63]

Death

Minsky died in Boston, Massachusetts on January 24, 2016, aged 88.[64] His family reported that he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.[1] Minsky was a member of Alcor Life Extension Foundation's Scientific Advisory Board.[49] Alcor will neither confirm nor deny that Minsky was cryonically preserved.[65]

See also

  • List of pioneers in computer science

Notes

  1. ↑ His being given this moniker is specifically due to his participation in the 1956 Dartmouth workshop that established Artificial Intelligence as an academic field.[according to whom?][citation needed]
  2. ↑ The patent for Minsky's Microscopy Apparatus was applied for in 1957, and subsequently granted US Patent Number 3,013,467 in 1961.[citation needed] According to his published biography on the MIT Media Lab webpage,[full citation needed] "In 1956, when a Junior Fellow at Harvard, Minsky invented and built the first Confocal Scanning Microscope, an optical instrument with unprecedented resolution and image quality".[This quote needs a citation]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 Rifkin, Glenn (January 25, 2016). "Marvin Minsky, Pioneer in Artificial Intelligence, Dies at 88". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/26/business/marvin-minsky-pioneer-in-artificial-intelligence-dies-at-88.html. 
  2. ↑ Minsky, Marvin (1961). "Steps toward Artificial Intelligence". Proceedings of the IRE 49 (1): 8–30. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1961.287775. Bibcode: 1961PIRE...49....8M. http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.803/pdf/steps.pdf. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Minsky, Marvin (1988). "Memoir on inventing the confocal scanning microscope". Scanning 10 (4): 128–138. doi:10.1002/sca.4950100403. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Pesta, A (March 12, 2014). "Looking for Something Useful to Do With Your Time? Don't Try This". WSJ. https://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887323628804578348572687608806. 
  5. ↑ Hillis, Danny; McCarthy, John; Mitchell, Tom M.; Mueller, Erik T.; Riecken, Doug; Sloman, Aaron; Winston, Patrick Henry (2007). "In Honor of Marvin Minsky's Contributions on his 80th Birthday". AI Magazine 28 (4): 109. doi:10.1609/aimag.v28i4.2064. 
  6. ↑ Papert, Seymour; Minsky, Marvin Lee (1988). Perceptrons: an introduction to computational geometry. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-63111-2. https://archive.org/details/perceptronsintro00mins. 
  7. ↑ Minsky, Marvin Lee (1986). The Society of Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-60740-1. https://archive.org/details/societyofmind00marv.  The first comprehensive description of the Society of Mind theory of intellectual structure and development. See also The Society of Mind (CD-ROM version), Voyager, 1996.
  8. ↑ Minsky, Marvin Lee (2007). The Emotion Machine: Commonsense Thinking, Artificial Intelligence, and the Future of the Human Mind. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-7664-1. 
  9. ↑ "Elected AAAI Fellows". https://www.aaai.org/Awards/fellows-list.php. 
  10. ↑ Marvin Lee Minsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
  11. ↑ Marvin Lee Minsky at the AI Genealogy Project.
  12. ↑ "Personal page for Marvin Minsky". http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/people.html. 
  13. ↑ {{DBLP}} template missing ID and not present in Wikidata.
  14. ↑ List of publications from Microsoft Academic
  15. ↑ "Google Scholar". https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=marvin+minsky. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Winston, Patrick Henry (2016). "Marvin L. Minsky (1927–2016)". Nature 530 (7590): 282. doi:10.1038/530282a. PMID 26887486. Bibcode: 2016Natur.530..282W. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Kuhn, Robert Lawrence (2016-03-03). "Brains, Minds, AI, God: Marvin Minsky Thought Like No One Else (Tribute)". space.com. https://www.space.com/32153-god-artificial-intelligence-and-the-passing-of-marvin-minsky.html. Retrieved 2025-09-07. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 NAE Staff (1989). "Dr. Marvin L. Minsky / Toshiba Professor of Media Art & Sciences Emeritus / Massachusetts Institute of Technology". NAE.edu. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Engineering (NAE). https://www.nae.edu/28871/Dr-Marvin-L-Minsky. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". American Academy of Achievement. https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "The Japan Prize". https://www.japanprize.jp/en/prize_past_1990_prize01.html. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Marvin Minsky – The Franklin Institute Awards – Laureate Database . Franklin Institute. Retrieved on March 25, 2008.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 DDP Staff (2014). "Previous Laureates / Marvin Minsky (1927 – 2016)". DanDavidPrize.org. https://dandavidprize.org/laureates/marvin-minsky-aug-1927-jan-2016/. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Dan David prize 2014 winners". May 15, 2014. http://english.tau.ac.il/video/dan_david_prize_2014. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 NAS Staff (1973). "Marvin L. Minsky / Massachusetts Institute of Technology". NASonline.org. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences (NAS). https://www.nasonline.org/directory-entry/marvin-l-minsky-uyjk98/. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 "Brief Academic Biography of Marvin Minsky". http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/minskybiog.html. [third-party source needed]
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Zeng, Daniel (2011). "AI's Hall of Fame". IEEE Intelligent Systems 26 (4): 5–15. doi:10.1109/MIS.2011.64. Bibcode: 2011IISys..26d...5Z. http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/homepage/2011/0811/rW_IS_AIsHallofFame.pdf. Retrieved September 4, 2015. 
  27. ↑ Campbell-Kelly, Martin (February 3, 2016). "Marvin Minsky Obituary". The Guardian (TheGuardian.com). https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/feb/03/marvin-minsky-obituary. 
  28. ↑ Swedin, Eric Gottfrid (August 10, 2005). Science in the Contemporary World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 188. https://archive.org/details/scienceincontemp0000swed. 
  29. ↑ Minsky, Marvin (July 31, 1954). "Theory of neural-analog reinforcement systems and its application to the brain-model problem". https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/SCSB-4802106. 
  30. ↑ Minsky, Marvin Lee (1954). Theory of Neural-Analog Reinforcement Systems and Its Application to the Brain Model Problem (PhD thesis). Princeton University. OCLC 3020680. ProQuest 301998727.
  31. ↑ Hillis, Danny; McCarthy, John; Mitchell, Tom M.; Mueller, Erik T.; Riecken, Doug; Sloman, Aaron; Winston, Patrick Henry (2007). "In Honor of Marvin Minsky's Contributions on his 80th Birthday". AI Magazine 28 (4): 103–110. http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/view/2064/2058. Retrieved November 24, 2010. 
  32. ↑ "Society of Fellows, Listed by Term". https://socfell.fas.harvard.edu/listed-term-0. 
  33. ↑ "Marvin Minsky, Ph.D. Biography and Interview". American Academy of Achievement. https://achievement.org/achiever/marvin-minsky-ph-d/#interview. 
  34. ↑ Horgan, John (November 1993). "Profile: Marvin L. Minsky: The Mastermind of Artificial Intelligence". Scientific American 269 (5): 14–15. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1193-35. Bibcode: 1993SciAm.269e..35H. 
  35. ↑ Rifkin, Glenn (28 January 2016). "Marvin Minsky, pioneer in artificial intelligence, dies at 88". MIT. http://tech.mit.edu/V135/N38/minsky.html. 
  36. ↑ Turlough Neary, Damien Woods, "Small Weakly Universal Turing Machines", Machines, Computations, and Universality 2007, proceedings, Orleans, France, September 10–13, 2007, ISBN 3540745920, p. 262-263
  37. ↑ Olazaran, Mikel (August 1996). "A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy". Social Studies of Science 26 (3): 611–659. doi:10.1177/030631296026003005. 
  38. ↑ Minsky, M. (1975). A framework for representing knowledge. In P. H. Winston (Ed.), The psychology of computer vision. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.[full citation needed]
  39. ↑ "Minsky's Frame System Theory". Proceedings of the 1975 Workshop on Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing (TINLAP '75). 1975. pp. 104–116. doi:10.3115/980190.980222. [full citation needed]
  40. ↑ "Marvin Minsky's Home Page". http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/. [third-party source needed]
  41. ↑ Minsky, Marvin (April 1985). "Communication with Alien Intelligence". Byte (Peterborough, New Hampshire: UBM Technology Group) 10 (4): 127. https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1985-04/1985_04_BYTE_10-04_Artificial_Intelligence#page/n127/mode/2up. Retrieved July 30, 2019. 
  42. ↑ For more, see this interview, "Scientist on the Set: An Interview with Marvin Minsky, Section 03". https://mitpress.mit.edu/e-books/Hal/chap2/two3.html. 
  43. ↑ "AI pioneer Marvin Minsky dies aged 88". BBC News. 26 January 2016. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35409119. 
  44. ↑ Clarke, Arthur C. (April 1968). 2001: A Space Odyssey. Hutchinson, UK
    New American Library, US. ISBN 0-453-00269-2.     [full citation needed]
  45. ↑ "Shannon's Ultimate Machine". https://functionallyimperative.com/p/shannons-ultimate-machine. 
  46. ↑ "Marvin Minsky: 2006 Fellow". https://www.computerhistory.org/fellowawards/hall/marvin-minsky/. 
  47. ↑ "MIT artificial intelligence, robotics pioneer feted: Award celebrates Minsky's career". BostonGlobe.com. August 24, 2011. https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2014/01/15/mit-professor-marvin-minsky-wins-award/aSiCSHIjlGycOGYmeLSZ5L/story.html. 
  48. ↑ "Extropy Institute Directors & Advisors". http://www.extropy.org/directors.htm. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Alcor Scientific Advisory Board". January 14, 2016. http://alcor.org/AboutAlcor/meetsciadvboard.html. 
  50. ↑ "kynamatrix Research Network : About". http://www.kynamatrix.org/organization.htm. 
  51. ↑ "R.I.P. Marvin Minsky". Washington Post. 26 January 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2016/01/25/marvin-minsky-1927-2016/. 
  52. ↑ "Obituary: Marvin Minsky, 88; MIT professor helped found field of artificial intelligence". Boston Globe. 26 January 2016. https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/01/25/marvin-minsky-dies-mit-professor-helped-found-field-artificial-intelligence/A8y6ey8S0QAaao463Z2ooO/story.html. 
  53. ↑ Lederman, Leon M.; Scheppler, Judith A. (2001). "Marvin Minsky: Mind Maker". Portraits of Great American Scientists. Prometheus Books. p. 74. ISBN 9781573929325. https://archive.org/details/portraitsofgreat00judi/page/74. "Another area where he "goes against the flow" is in his spiritual beliefs. As far as religion is concerned, he's a confirmed atheist. "I think it [religion] is a contagious mental disease. ... The brain has a need to believe it knows a reason for things." 
  54. ↑ "SCIENTISTS' OPEN LETTER ON CRYONICS". The Science of Cryonics. Biostasis.com. March 19, 2004. https://www.biostasis.com/scientists-open-letter-on-cryonics/. 
  55. ↑ Salon.com Technology |Artificial stupidity
  56. ↑ "For artificial intelligence pioneer Marvin Minsky, computers have soul". Jerusalem Post. 13 May 2014. https://www.jpost.com/Business/Business-Features/For-artificial-intelligence-pioneer-Marvin-Minsky-computers-have-soul-352076. 
  57. ↑ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). "Section 26.3: The Ethics and Risks of Developing Artificial Intelligence". Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0137903955. "Similarly, Marvin Minsky once suggested that an AI program designed to solve the Riemann Hypothesis might end up taking over all the resources of Earth to build more powerful supercomputers to help achieve its goal." 
  58. ↑ Achenbach, Joel (6 January 2016). "Marvin Minsky, an architect of artificial intelligence, dies at 88". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/marvin-minsky-an-architect-of-artificial-intelligence-dies-at-88/2016/01/26/934e3d50-c430-11e5-8965-0607e0e265ce_story.html. 
  59. ↑ Subbaraman, Nidhi (2020-01-10). "MIT review of Epstein donations finds "significant mistakes of judgment"" (in en). Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00072-x. PMID 33420402. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00072-x. 
  60. ↑ Braceras, Roberto M.; Chunias, Jennifer L.; Martin, Kevin P. (January 10, 2020). "Report Concerning Jeffrey Epstein's Interactions with the Massachusetts Institute Of Technology". pp. 9, 15. http://factfindingjan2020.mit.edu/files/MIT-report.pdf. 
  61. ↑ "AI pioneer accused of having sex with trafficking victim on Jeffrey Epstein's island". The Verge. August 9, 2019. https://www.theverge.com/2019/8/9/20798900/marvin-minsky-jeffrey-epstein-sex-trafficking-island-court-records-unsealed. 
  62. ↑ Giuffre, Virginia (2025). Nobody's Girl. Knopf. pp. 229. "Epstein sent me to a cabana on the beach and told me to service the man inside. I will never forget Minsky's bald head, and the way his face seemed to have shriveled like one of those folk-art dolls whose heads are dried-up apples. Throughout my time having sex with Minsky, I could hear the waves lapping outside the little room. I tried to focus only on that sound." 
  63. ↑ Carlistle, Madeline; Mansoor, Sanya (August 14, 2019). "The Jeffrey Epstein Investigation Continues After His Death. Here's Who Else Could Be Investigated". Time. https://time.com/5651186/jeffrey-epstein-investigation-co-conspirators/. Retrieved July 28, 2019. "Minsky’s widow, Gloria Rudisch, denied he had sex with Giuffre or any other girls". 
  64. ↑ Pearson, Michael (26 January 2016). "Pioneering computer scientist Marvin Minsky dies at 88". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2016/01/26/us/marvin-minsky-obit-feat/. 
  65. ↑ "Official Alcor Statement Concerning Marvin Minsky". Alcor News. Alcor Life Extension Foundation. January 27, 2016. https://www.alcor.org/blog/official-alcor-statement-concerning-marvin-minsky/. 

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