Biology:Chicory

From HandWiki
Short description: Flowering plant in the daisy family
Not to be confused with Cichorium endivia.

Common chicory
Wegwarte Cichorium intybus.jpg
Blue-flowered form
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Cichorium
Species:
C. intybus
Binomial name
Cichorium intybus
Synonyms[1][2]
Botanical illustration (1885)

Common chicory (Cichorium intybus)[3] is a somewhat woody, perennial herbaceous plant of the family Asteraceae, usually with bright blue flowers, rarely white or pink. Native to the Old World, it has been introduced to the Americas and Australia .[4]

Many varieties are cultivated for salad leaves, chicons (blanched buds), or roots (var. sativum), which are baked, ground, and used as a coffee substitute and food additive. In the 21st century, inulin, an extract from chicory root, has been used in food manufacturing as a sweetener and source of dietary fiber.[5] Chicory is also grown as a forage crop for livestock.[6]

Description

When flowering, chicory has a tough, grooved, and more or less hairy stem. It can grow to 1.5 metres (5 feet) tall.[7] The leaves are stalked, lanceolate and unlobed; they range from 7.5–32 centimetres (3–12 1⁄2 inches) in length (smallest near the top)[8] and 2–8 cm (3⁄4–3 1⁄4 in) wide.[7] The flower heads are 3–5 cm (1 1⁄4–2 in) wide,[7] and usually light blue[8] or lavender; it has also rarely been described as white or pink.[7] Of the two rows of involucral bracts, the inner is longer and erect, the outer is shorter and spreading. It flowers from March until October.[8] The seed has small scales at the tip.[8]

  • Leaves unlobed and pointed

  • Flower close-up

Chemistry

Substances which contribute to the plant's bitterness are primarily the two sesquiterpene lactones, lactucin and lactucopicrin. Other components are aesculetin, aesculin, cichoriin, umbelliferone, scopoletin, 6,7-dihydrocoumarin, and further sesquiterpene lactones and their glycosides.[9] Around 1970, it was discovered that the root contains up to 20% inulin, a polysaccharide similar to starch.[citation needed]

Names

Common chicory is also known as blue daisy, blue dandelion, blue sailors, blue weed, bunk, coffeeweed, cornflower, hendibeh, horseweed, ragged sailors, succory, wild bachelor's buttons, and wild endive.[10] ("Cornflower" is also commonly applied to Centaurea cyanus.) Common names for varieties of var. foliosum include endive, radicchio, radichetta, Belgian endive, French endive, red endive, sugarloaf, and witloof (or witlof).[11]

Distribution and habitat

Chicory is native to western Asia, North Africa, and Europe.[3] It lives as a wild plant on roadsides in Europe. The plant was brought to North America by early European colonists.[12] It is also common in China , and Australia , where it has become widely naturalized.[13][14][15]

It is more common in areas with abundant rain.[8]

Pied hoverfly on flower

Ecology

Chicory is both a cultivated crop and a weedy plant with a cosmopolitan distribution. Analysis of introduced weedy populations in North America has revealed that naturalized weedy chicory is partially descended from domesticated cultivars.[16]

Chicory grows in roadsides, waste places, and other disturbed areas, and can survive in lawns due to its ability to resprout from its low basal rosette of leaves. It typically does not enter undisturbed natural areas.[17][18] It most prefers limestone soils, but tolerates an array of conditions. Bees, butterflies, and flies feed upon it.

Uses

Culinary

Chicory greens, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy96 kJ (23 kcal)
4.7 g
Sugars0.7 g
Dietary fiber4 g
0.3 g
1.7 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
36%
286 μg
32%
3430 μg
10300 μg
Thiamine (B1)
5%
0.06 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
8%
0.1 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
23%
1.159 mg
Vitamin B6
8%
0.105 mg
Folate (B9)
28%
110 μg
Vitamin C
29%
24 mg
Vitamin E
15%
2.26 mg
Vitamin K
283%
297.6 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
10%
100 mg
Iron
7%
0.9 mg
Magnesium
8%
30 mg
Manganese
20%
0.429 mg
Phosphorus
7%
47 mg
Potassium
9%
420 mg
Sodium
3%
45 mg
Zinc
4%
0.42 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water92 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Belgian endive (witloof), raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy71 kJ (17 kcal)
4 g
Dietary fiber3.1 g
0.1 g
0.9 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)
5%
0.062 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
2%
0.027 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.16 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
3%
0.145 mg
Vitamin B6
3%
0.042 mg
Folate (B9)
9%
37 μg
Vitamin C
3%
2.8 mg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
2%
19 mg
Iron
2%
0.24 mg
Magnesium
3%
10 mg
Manganese
5%
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
4%
26 mg
Potassium
4%
211 mg
Sodium
0%
2 mg
Zinc
2%
0.16 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water94 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

The entire plant is edible.[19]

Raw chicory leaves are 92% water, 5% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). In a 100-gram (3½ oz) reference amount, raw chicory leaves provide 23 calories (96 J) and significant amounts (more than 20% of the Daily Value) of vitamin K, vitamin A, vitamin C, some B vitamins, and manganese. Vitamin E and calcium are present in moderate amounts. Raw endive is 94% water and has low nutrient content.

Root chicory

Root chicory (Cichorium intybus var. sativum) has long been cultivated in Europe as a coffee substitute.[20] The roots are baked, roasted, ground, and used as an additive, especially in the Mediterranean region (where the plant is native). As a coffee additive, it is also mixed in Indian filter coffee and in parts of Southeast Asia, South Africa, and the southern United States, particularly in New Orleans. In France, a mixture of 60% chicory and 40% coffee is sold under the trade name Ricoré. It has been more widely used during economic crises such as the Great Depression in the 1930s and during World War II in Continental Europe. Chicory, with sugar beet and rye, was used as an ingredient of the East German Mischkaffee (mixed coffee), introduced during the "East German coffee crisis" of 1976–1979. It is also added to coffee in Spain , Greek, Turkish, Syrian, Lebanese and Palestinian cuisines.[21]

Some beer brewers use roasted chicory to add flavor to stouts (commonly expected to have a coffee-like flavor). Others have added it to strong blond Belgian-style ales, to augment the hops, making a witloofbier, from the Dutch name for the plant.

The roots can also be cooked like parsnips.[22]

  • Dried chicory root

  • Korean chicory tea made from dried chicory root

  • Café du Monde canned coffee-chicory blend

Leaf chicory

Wild

While edible raw, wild chicory leaves usually have a bitter taste, especially the older leaves.[23] The flavor is appreciated in certain cuisines, such as in the Ligurian and Apulian regions of Italy and also in the southern part of India. In Ligurian cuisine, wild chicory leaves are an ingredient of preboggion and in the Apulian region, wild chicory leaves are combined with fava bean puree in the traditional local dish fave e cicorie selvatiche.[24] In Albania, the leaves are used as a spinach substitute, mainly served simmered and marinated in olive oil, or as ingredient for fillings of byrek. In Greece a variety of wild chicory found in Crete and known as stamnagathi (spiny chicory) is used as a salad served with olive oil and lemon juice.

By cooking and discarding the water, the bitterness is reduced, after which the chicory leaves may be sautéed with garlic, anchovies, and other ingredients. In this form, the resulting greens might be combined with pasta[25] or accompany meat dishes.[26]

Cultivated

Chicory may be cultivated for its leaves, usually eaten raw as salad leaves. Cultivated chicory is generally divided into three types, of which there are many varieties:[27]

  • Radicchio usually has variegated red or red and green leaves. Some only refer to the white-veined red-leaved type as radicchio, also known as red endive and red chicory. It has a bitter and spicy taste, which mellows when it is grilled or roasted. It can also be used to add color and zest to salads. It is largely used in Italy in different varieties, the most famous being the ones from Treviso (known as radicchio rosso di Treviso),[28][29] from Verona (radicchio di Verona), and Chioggia (radicchio di Chioggia), which are classified as an IGP.[30][clarification needed] It is also common in Greece, where it is known as radiki and mainly boiled in salads, and is used in pies.[citation needed]
Witloof, Belgian endive
  • Belgian endive is known in Dutch as witloof or witlof ("white leaf"), indivia in Italy, endivias in Spain, chicory in the UK, as witlof in Australia , endive in France and Canada, and chicon in parts of northern France, in Wallonia and (in French) in Luxembourg.[31] It has a small head of cream-colored, bitter leaves. The harvested root is allowed to sprout indoors in the absence of sunlight, which prevents the leaves from turning green and opening up (etiolation). It is often sold wrapped in blue paper to protect it from light, so as to preserve its pale color and delicate flavor. The smooth, creamy white leaves may be served stuffed, baked, boiled, cut, or cooked in a milk sauce, or simply cut raw. The tender leaves are slightly bitter; the whiter the leaf, the less bitter the taste. The harder inner part of the stem at the bottom of the head can be cut out before cooking to prevent bitterness. Belgium exports chicon/witloof to over 40 countries. The technique for growing blanched endives was accidentally discovered in the 1850s at the Botanical Garden of Brussels in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, Belgium.[32] Today France is the largest producer of endive.[33]
  • Catalogna chicory (Cichorium intybus var. foliosum), also known as puntarelle, includes a whole subfamily (some varieties from Belgian endive and some from radicchio)[34] of chicory and is used throughout Italy.

Although leaf chicory is often called "endive", true endive (Cichorium endivia) is a different species in the genus, distinct from Belgian endive.[35]

Chicory root and inulin

Inulin is mainly found in the plant family Asteraceae as a storage carbohydrate (for example Jerusalem artichoke, dahlia, yacon, etc.). It is used as a sweetener in the food industry with a sweetening power 10% that of sucrose[36] and is sometimes added to yogurts as a 'prebiotic'.[37]

Fresh chicory root may contain 13–23% inulin as a percentage of its total carbohydrate content.[38]

Traditional use

Chicory root contains essential oils similar to those found in plants in the related genus Tanacetum.[39] In alternative medicine, chicory has been listed as one of the 38 plants used to prepare Bach flower remedies.[40]

Forage

Chicory is highly digestible for ruminants and has a low fiber concentration.[41] Chicory roots were once considered an "excellent substitute for oats" for horses due to their protein and fat content.[42] Chicory contains a low quantity of reduced tannins[41] that may increase protein utilization efficiency in ruminants.[citation needed]

Some tannins reduce intestinal parasites.[43][44] Dietary chicory may be toxic to internal parasites, with studies of ingesting chicory by farm animals having lower worm burdens, leading to its use as a forage supplement.[45][46][47] Although chicory might have originated in France, Italy and India,[48] much development of chicory for use with livestock has been undertaken in New Zealand.[49]

Forage varieties

  • 'Puna' ('Grasslands Puna'): Developed in New Zealand,[50][51] Grasslands Puna is well adapted to different climates, being grown from Alberta, Canada , New Mexico, Florida to Australia.[52] It is resistant to bolting, which leads to high nutrient levels in the leaves in spring. It also is able to quickly come back after grazing.[53]
  • 'Forage Feast':[54] A variety from France used for human consumption and also for wildlife plots, where animals such as deer might graze.[52] It is resistant to bolting.[55] It is very cold-hardy, and being lower in tannins than other forage varieties, is suitable for human consumption.[citation needed]
  • 'Choice': has been bred for high winter and early-spring growth activity, and lower amounts of lactucin and lactone, which are believed to taint milk. It is also use for seeding deer wildlife plots.[52]
  • 'Oasis':[56] was bred for increased lactone rates for the forage industry, and for higher resistance to fungal diseases such as Sclerotinia (mainly s. minor and S. sclerotiorum.[57])
  • 'Puna II': This variety is more winter-active than most others, which leads to greater persistence and longevity.[52]
  • 'Grouse':[52] A New Zealand variety, it is used as a planting companion for forage brassicas. More prone to early flowering than other varieties, it has higher crowns more susceptible to overbrowsing.
  • 'Six Point': A United States variety, winter hardy and resistant to bolting.[56] It is very similar to Puna.

Others varieties known include; 'Chico', 'Ceres Grouse', 'Good Hunt', 'El Nino' and 'Lacerta'.[55]

History

The plant has a history reaching back to ancient Egypt.[citation needed] In ancient Rome, a dish called puntarelle was made with chicory sprouts.[58] It was mentioned by Horace in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea, me malvae" ("As for me, olives, endives, and mallows provide sustenance").[59] Chicory was first described as a cultivated plant in the 17th century.[60] When coffee was introduced to Europe, the Dutch thought that chicory made a lively addition to the bean drink.[citation needed]

In 1766, Frederick the Great banned the importation of coffee into Prussia, leading to the development of a coffee substitute by Brunswick innkeeper Christian Gottlieb Förster (died 1801), who gained a concession in 1769–70 to manufacture it in Brunswick and Berlin. By 1795, 22 to 24 factories of this type were in Brunswick.[61][62] Lord Monboddo describes the plant in 1779[63] as the "chicoree", which the French cultivated as a pot herb. In Napoleonic Era France, chicory frequently appeared as an adulterant in coffee, or as a coffee substitute.[64] Chicory was also adopted as a coffee substitute by Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War, and has become common in the United States. It was also used in the United Kingdom during the Second World War, where Camp Coffee, a coffee and chicory essence, has been on sale since 1885.[65]

In the U.S., chicory root has long been used as a coffee substitute in prisons.[66] By the 1840s, the port of New Orleans was the second-largest importer of coffee (after New York).[64] Louisianans began to add chicory root to their coffee when Union naval blockades during the American Civil War cut off the port of New Orleans, thereby creating a long-standing tradition.[64]

In culture

Chicory is mentioned in certain ancient Chinese texts about silk production. Amongst traditional recommendations the primary caretaker of the silkworms, the "silkworm mother", should not eat or even touch it.[67][68]

The chicory flower is often seen as inspiration for the Romantic concept of the Blue Flower (e.g. in German language Blauwarte ≈ blue lookout by the wayside). Similar to the springwort and moonwort, it could open locked doors, according to European folklore.[69][70] However, the plant must be gathered at noon or midnight on St. James's Day and cut with gold while being silent, or else one would die afterwards. [70]

Chicory was also believed to grant its possessor invisibility. [70]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Cichorium intybus L. synonyms". Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. http://tropicos.org/Name/2702287?tab=synonyms. 
  2. ↑ "Cichorium intybus L.". 2013. http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/gcc-37233. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Cichorium intybus". FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=694. 
  4. ↑ "Cichorium intybus L.". https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:194533-1. 
  5. ↑ Raninen, K; Lappi, J; Mykkänen, H; Poutanen, K (2011). "Dietary fiber type reflects physiological functionality: Comparison of grain fiber, inulin, and polydextrose". Nutrition Reviews 69 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00358.x. PMID 21198631. 
  6. ↑ Blair, Robert (2011-04-30). Nutrition and Feeding of Organic Cattle. ISBN 978-1-84593-758-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=B0bXX_grAwYC&pg=PA68. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Elias, Thomas S.; Dykeman, Peter A. (2009). Edible Wild Plants: A North American Field Guide to Over 200 Natural Foods. New York: Sterling. pp. 115. ISBN 978-1-4027-6715-9. OCLC 244766414. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/244766414. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Spellenberg, Richard (2001). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region (rev ed.). Knopf. pp. 366. ISBN 978-0-375-40233-3. https://archive.org/details/nationalaudubons00spel/page/366/. 
  9. ↑ Harsh Pal Bais, GA Ravishankar (2001) Cichorium intybus L – cultivation, processing, utility, value addition and biotechnology, with an emphasis on current status and future prospects. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 81, 467–484.
  10. ↑ "Chickory Cichorium intybus". Ohio Perennial & Biennial Weed Guide. Ohio State University OARDC Extension. http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/weedguide/singlerecord.asp?id=920. 
  11. ↑ Benigni, M.; Bompeix, G. (2010). "Chemical and biological control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in witloof chicory culture.". Pest Manag. Sci. 66 (12): 1332–1336. doi:10.1002/ps.2019. PMID 20839264. 
  12. ↑ Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010). The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN: FalconGuides. pp. 10. ISBN 978-1-59921-887-8. OCLC 560560606. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/560560606. 
  13. ↑ "Cichorium intybus". Flora of North America. http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200023652. 
  14. ↑ "Cichorium intybus in Flora of China @ efloras.org". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183748/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200023652. 
  15. ↑ Australia, Atlas of Living. "Species: Cichorium intybus (Chicory)". Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160305013336/http://bie.ala.org.au/species/Cichorium%2Bintybus. 
  16. ↑ Zavada, Tomas; Malik, Rondy J.; Kesseli, Rick V. (2017). "Population structure in chicory (Cichorium intybus): A successful U.S. weed since the American revolutionary war". Ecology and Evolution 7 (12): 4209–4219. doi:10.1002/ece3.2994. PMID 28649334. Bibcode: 2017EcoEv...7.4209Z. 
  17. ↑ "Chicory, Cichorium intybus". University of Wisconsin-Madison. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/chicory-cichorium-intybus/. 
  18. ↑ Dorman, Kathryn. "Chicory- weed or flower?". Penn State Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/chicory-weed-or-flower. 
  19. ↑ (in en-US) The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. United States Department of the Army. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 2009. pp. 42. ISBN 978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC 277203364. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364. 
  20. ↑ Laurie Neverman (31 August 2018). "Chicory - The "Coffee Root" Plant". https://commonsensehome.com/chicory/. 
  21. ↑ Tijen İnaltong. "Wild Herbs of Turkey". Turkish Cultural Foundation. http://www.turkish-cuisine.org/english/pages.php?ParentID=5&FirstLevel=53&SecondLevel=61. 
  22. ↑ Nyerges, Christopher (2016). Foraging Wild Edible Plants of North America: More than 150 Delicious Recipes Using Nature's Edibles. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-4930-1499-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=RwDHCgAAQBAJ. 
  23. ↑ Nyerges, Christopher (2017). Foraging Washington: Finding, Identifying, and Preparing Edible Wild Foods. Guilford, CT: Falcon Guides. ISBN 978-1-4930-2534-3. OCLC 965922681. 
  24. ↑ Kyle Phillips. "Fava Bean Puree with Wild Chicory Recipe - Fave e Cicorie Selvatiche". About.com. http://italianfood.about.com/od/chickpeaslentils/r/blr1898.htm. 
  25. ↑ "Wild Chicory Spaghetti". Dolce Vita Diaries. Nudo Italia. 2009-05-19. http://dolcevitadiaries.co.uk/2009/05/19/wild-chicory-spaghetti. 
  26. ↑ Jaume Fàbrega, El gust d'un poble: els plats més famosos de la cuina catalana. Llomillo fregit amb xicoires
  27. ↑ Leach, Frann (2004), Organic Gardening: How to grow organic Chicory, Gardenzone.info, http://www.gardenzone.info/crops/index.php?crop=chicory, retrieved 2008-08-10 
  28. ↑ (in it) Radicchio Rosso di Treviso IGP - Tardivo (Red Radicchio of Treviso - Late harvest), Consorzio Tutela Radicchio Rosso di Treviso e Variegato di Castelfranco IGP, http://www.radicchioditreviso.it/cms/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12&Itemid=22, retrieved 2013-08-25 
  29. ↑ Radicchio Rosso: The Marvel from Treviso, About.com, http://italianfood.about.com/library/rec/blr0094.htm, retrieved 2013-08-25 
  30. ↑ (in it) Radicchio di Verona IGP, TreVenezie, 2 February 2009, http://www.trevenezie.it/it/radicchio-di-verona-igp/, retrieved 2022-07-11 
  31. ↑ Yeoman, Andrew (1 March 2001). "Belgian Endives". https://www.bcliving.ca/belgian-endives. 
  32. ↑ "Belgian endive- Cichorium intybus". The Food Museum. http://www.foodmuseum.com/endive.html. 
  33. ↑ "About". Frenchvegetables.com. http://www.frenchvegetables.com/about. 
  34. ↑ Cicoria Asparago o Catalogna - Long-stemmed Italian Chicory, PROJECTFOODLAB, March 17, 2011, http://projectfoodlab.typepad.com/projectfoodlab-italy/2011/03/cicoria-asparago-o-catalogna-long-stemmed-italian-chicory.html, retrieved 2013-08-25 
  35. ↑ "Endive, Chicory and Witloof". Aggie Horticulture. Texas AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M System. http://plantanswers.tamu.edu/vegetables/endive.html. 
  36. ↑ Joseph O'Neill (2008-06-01). "Using inulin and oligofructose with high-intensity sweeteners". New Hope 360. Penton. http://www.functionalingredientsmag.com/article/Formulations/using-inulin-and-oligofructose-with-high-intensity-sweeteners.aspx. 
  37. ↑ Madrigal L. Sangronis E. "Inulin and derivates as key ingredients in functional foods. [Review]" [Spanish] Archivos Latinoamericanos de Nutricion. 57(4):387-96, 2007 Dec.
  38. ↑ Wilson, Robert; S; Y (2004). "Chicory Root Yield and Carbohydrate Composition is Influenced by Cultivar Selection, Planting, and Harvest Date". Crop Sci. 44 (3): 748–752. doi:10.2135/cropsci2004.0748. http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/3/748. Retrieved 2008-08-20. 
  39. ↑ Edible and Medicinal Plants of the West, Gregory L. Tilford, ISBN:0-87842-359-1
  40. ↑ D. S. Vohra (1 June 2004). Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study. B. Jain Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-81-7021-271-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=icG8onA0ys8C&pg=PR3. Retrieved 2 September 2013. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Agronomy, American Society of (2005-10-25). Advances in agronomy. Gulf Professional. ISBN 978-0-12-000786-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=jla_sZtQPi0C&pg=PA209. 
  42. ↑ Donegan, Alfred W. (1915). Commerce reports. Bureau Of Foreign And Domestic Commerce. https://books.google.com/books?id=TisoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74. 
  43. ↑ "Tannins, Nutrition and Internal Parasites". NR International. http://www.smallstock.info/info/feedhealth/tannins.htm. 
  44. ↑ Kidane, A. Houdijk JG. Athanasiadou S. Tolkamp BJ. Kyriazakis I. (2010). "Effects of maternal protein nutrition and subsequent grazing on chicory (Cichorium intybus) on parasitism and performance of lambs". Journal of Animal Science 88 (4): 1513–21. doi:10.2527/jas.2009-2530. PMID 20023143. 
  45. ↑ Heckendorn, F; Häring, DA; Maurer, V; Senn, M; Hertzberg, H (2007-05-15). "Individual administration of three tanniferous forage plants to lambs artificially infected with Haemonchus contortus and Cooperia curticei". Vet. Parasitol. 146 (1–2): 123–34. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.01.009. PMID 17336459. http://orgprints.org/13009/1/abstract_Vet_Parasitol_Heckendorn.pdf. 
  46. ↑ Athanasiadou, S.; Gray, D; Younie, D; Tzamaloukas, O; Jackson, F; Kyriazakis, I (February 2007). "The use of chicory for parasite control in organic ewes and their lambs". Parasitology 134 (Pt 2): 299–307. doi:10.1017/S0031182006001363. PMID 17032469. 
  47. ↑ Tzamaloukas, O; Athanasiadou, S; Kyriazakis, I; Huntley, JF; Jackson, F (March 2006). "The effect of chicory (Cichorium intybus) and sulla (Hedysarum coronarium) on larval development and mucosal cell responses of growing lambs challenged with Teladorsagia circumcincta". Parasitology 132 (Pt 3): 419–26. doi:10.1017/S0031182005009194. PMID 16332288. 
  48. ↑ Thomas, Rans (2012-01-11). "Chicory: A Powerful Perennial". http://www.qdma.com/what-we-do/articles/food-plotshabitat/chicory/. 
  49. ↑ "Making good use of chicory". 2011-03-25. http://www.ruralliving.co.nz/cms/special_feature/pasture_management/2011/03/making_good_use_of_chicory.php. 
  50. ↑ Gene Logsdon All Flesh is Grass: The Pleasures and Promises of Pasture Farming, p. 208, at Google Books
  51. ↑ Donald L. Sparks (Editor)Advances in Agronomy, Volume 88, p. 188, at Google Books
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 Donald L. Sparks (Editor) Advances in Agronomy, Volume 88, p. 190, at Google Books
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  54. ↑ Ashton Acton (Editor) Advances in Agriculture Research and Application: 2011 Edition, p. 280, at Google Books
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  59. ↑ Horace, Odes 31, ver 15, ca 30 BC
  60. ↑ Pieroni, Andrea (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark. eds. The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. p. 40. ISBN 0415927463. 
  61. ↑ Genußmittel. Frankfurt a. M. New York: Campus Verlag. 1999. ISBN 978-3-593-36337-0. 
  62. ↑ Carl Philipp Ribbentrop (1796) (in de). Vollständige Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Braunschweig.. 2. Braunschweig. pp. 146–148. 
  63. ↑ Letter from Monboddo to John Hope, 29 April 1779; reprinted by William Knight 1900 ISBN:1-85506-207-0
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Guas, David; Raquel Pelzel (2009). DamGood Sweet: Desserts to Satisfy Your Sweet Tooth, New Orleans Style. Newtown, Connecticut: Taunton Press. pp. 60–64. ISBN 978-1-60085-118-6. 
  65. ↑ "BBC - A History of the World: Original Camp Coffee label". BBC. 16 September 2021. https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/XG1CiGSCTzqb05nDwIhhjg. 
  66. ↑ (a) Delaney, John H. "New York (State). Dept. of Efficiency and Economy Annual Report". Albany New York, 1915, p. 673. Accessed via Google Books.
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  67. ↑ "Around silk: raising silk worms". http://auverasoie.com/Version_anglaise/univers.html. 
  68. ↑ "The sheen of romance". https://taiwantoday.tw/print.php?unit=12,29,33,45&post=22633. 
  69. ↑ Howard, Michael. Traditional Folk Remedies (Century, 1987), p.120.
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External links

Wikidata ☰ Q2544599 entry



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