Biology:Cruciferous vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, mustard plant and similar green leaf vegetables. The family takes its alternative name (Cruciferae, Neo-Latin for "cross-bearing") from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross.
Ten of the most common cruciferous vegetables eaten by people, known colloquially in North America as cole crops[1] and in the UK, Ireland and Australia as brassicas, are in a single species (Brassica oleracea); they are not distinguished from one another taxonomically, only by horticultural category of cultivar groups. Numerous other genera and species in the family are also edible. Cruciferous vegetables are one of the dominant food crops worldwide. They are high in vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain multiple nutrients and phytochemicals.
List of cruciferous vegetables
Extensive selective breeding has produced a large variety of cultivars, especially within the genus Brassica. One description of genetic factors involved in the breeding of Brassica species is the Triangle of U.
| common name | genus | specific epithet | Cultivar group |
|---|---|---|---|
| Horseradish | Armoracia | rusticana | |
| Land cress | Barbarea | verna | |
| Ethiopian mustard | Brassica | carinata | |
| Kale | Brassica | oleracea | Acephala group |
| Collard greens | Brassica | oleracea | Acephala group |
| Chinese broccoli (gai-lan / jie lan) | Brassica | oleracea | Alboglabra group |
| Cabbage | Brassica | oleracea | Capitata group |
| Savoy cabbage | Brassica | oleracea | Savoy Cabbage group |
| Brussels sprouts | Brassica | oleracea | Gemmifera group |
| Kohlrabi | Brassica | oleracea | Gongylodes group |
| Broccoli | Brassica | oleracea | Italica group |
| Broccolini | Brassica | oleracea | Italica group × Alboglabra group |
| Broccoflower | Brassica | oleracea | Italica group × Botrytis group |
| Broccoli romanesco | Brassica | oleracea | Botrytis group / Italica group |
| Cauliflower | Brassica | oleracea | Botrytis group |
| Wild broccoli | Brassica | oleracea | Oleracea group |
| Chinese cabbage (bok choy) | Brassica | rapa | chinensis |
| Komatsuna | Brassica | rapa | perviridis or komatsuna |
| Mizuna | Brassica | rapa | nipposinica |
| Rapini (broccoli rabe) | Brassica | rapa | parachinensis |
| Choy sum (flowering cabbage) | Brassica | rapa | parachinensis |
| Chinese cabbage (napa cabbage) | Brassica | rapa | pekinensis |
| Turnip root; greens | Brassica | rapa | rapifera |
| Rutabaga (swede) | Brassica | napus | napobrassica |
| Siberian kale | Brassica | napus | pabularia |
| Canola/rapeseed | Brassica | rapa/napus | oleifera |
| Wrapped heart mustard cabbage | Brassica | juncea | rugosa |
| Mustard seeds, brown; greens | Brassica | juncea | |
| White mustard seeds | Brassica (or Sinapis) | hirta | |
| Black mustard seeds | Brassica | nigra | |
| Tatsoi | Brassica | rosularis | |
| Wild arugula | Diplotaxis | tenuifolia | |
| Arugula (rocket) | Eruca | vesicaria | |
| Field pepperweed | Lepidium | campestre | |
| Maca | Lepidium | meyenii | |
| Garden cress | Lepidium | sativum | |
| Watercress | Nasturtium | officinale | |
| Radish | Raphanus | sativus | |
| Daikon | Raphanus | sativus | longipinnatus |
| Wasabi | Wasabia | japonica |
Further relationships inside the family Brassicaceae can be described by tribes, a grouping of genera (see Brassicaceae § Relationships within the family). Armoracia, Barbarea, and Nasturtium belong to the tribe Cardamineae; Brassica, Sinapis, Diplotaxis, Eruca, and Raphanus belong to Brassiceae; Lepidium belongs in Lepidieae; and finally Wasabia (Eutrema) belongs in Eutremeae.[2]
Research
According to an umbrella review of 41 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of 303 observational studies, there is suggestive evidence for beneficial associations in gastric cancer, lung cancer, endometrial cancer, and all-cause mortality.[3]
Cancer
Cruciferous vegetables contain glucosinolates, which are under research for their potential to affect cancer.[4][5][6][7] Glucosinolates are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates (ITCs) by myrosinase.[8] ITCs are being investigated for their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects.[8][9]
Drug and toxin metabolism
Chemicals contained in cruciferous vegetables induce the expression of the liver enzyme CYP1A2.[10]
Alliaceous and cruciferous vegetable consumption may induce glutathione S-transferases, uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyl transferases, and quinone reductases[11] all of which are potentially involved in detoxification of carcinogens such as aflatoxin.[12] High consumption of cruciferous vegetables has potential risk from allergies, interference with drugs such as warfarin, and genotoxicity.[13][14]
Taste
People who can taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), which is either bitter or tasteless, are less likely to find cruciferous vegetables palatable [15] due to the resemblance between isothiocyanates and PTC.
Contraindications
Although cruciferous vegetables are generally safe for human consumption, individuals with known allergies or hypersensitivities to a certain Brassica vegetable, or those taking anticoagulant therapy, should be cautious.[14]
References
- ↑ Gibson AC. "Colewart and the cole crops". University of California Los Angeles. http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Brassica/index.html.
- ↑ NCBI Taxonomy browser queries, retrieved January 3, 2022.
- ↑ Li, YZ; Yang, ZY; Gong, TT; Liu, YS; Liu, FH; Wen, ZY; Li, XY; Gao, C et al. (20 April 2022). "Cruciferous vegetable consumption and multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of 41 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of 303 observational studies.". Food & Function 13 (8): 4247–4259. doi:10.1039/d1fo03094a. PMID 35352732.
- ↑ "Cruciferous Vegetables and Cancer Prevention". Fact Sheet. National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 7 June 2012. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/diet/cruciferous-vegetables.
- ↑ "Plant-derived 3,3'-Diindolylmethane is a strong androgen antagonist in human prostate cancer cells". The Journal of Biological Chemistry 278 (23): 21136–45. Jun 2003. doi:10.1074/jbc.M300588200. PMID 12665522.
- ↑ "Cruciferous vegetables and cancer prevention". Nutrition and Cancer 41 (1–2): 17–28. 2001. doi:10.1080/01635581.2001.9680607. PMID 12094621.
- ↑ "A review of the clinical efficacy and safety of cruciferous vegetable phytochemicals". Nutrition Reviews 65 (6 Pt 1): 259–67. Jun 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00303.x. PMID 17605302.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Cancer chemoprevention with dietary isothiocyanates mature for clinical translational research". Carcinogenesis 33 (10): 1833–42. Oct 2012. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgs216. PMID 22739026.
- ↑ "Molecular targets of isothiocyanates in cancer: recent advances". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 58 (8): 1685–707. Aug 2014. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201300684. PMID 24510468.
- ↑ "Brassica vegetables increase and apiaceous vegetables decrease cytochrome P450 1A2 activity in humans: changes in caffeine metabolite ratios in response to controlled vegetable diets". Carcinogenesis 21 (6): 1157–62. Jun 2000. doi:10.1093/carcin/21.6.1157. PMID 10837004.
- ↑ "Chemoprotection by organosulfur inducers of phase 2 enzymes: dithiolethiones and dithiins". Drug Metabolism and Drug Interactions 17 (1–4): 3–22. 2000. doi:10.1515/DMDI.2000.17.1-4.3. PMID 11201301.
- ↑ "Effects of glucosinolate-rich broccoli sprouts on urinary levels of aflatoxin-DNA adducts and phenanthrene tetraols in a randomized clinical trial in He Zuo township, Qidong, People's Republic of China". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 14 (11 Pt 1): 2605–13. Nov 2005. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0368. PMID 16284385.
- ↑ "Health benefits and possible risks of broccoli - an overview". Food and Chemical Toxicology 49 (12): 3287–309. Dec 2011. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.08.019. PMID 21906651.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 "The safety of cruciferous plants in humans: a systematic review". Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology 2012: 503241. 2012. doi:10.1155/2012/503241. PMID 22500092.
- ↑ "Natural selection and molecular evolution in PTC, a bitter-taste receptor gene". American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (4): 637–46. Apr 2004. doi:10.1086/383092. PMID 14997422.
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