Biology:Hyperaccumulators table – 3

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This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic solvents (Potassium ferrocyanide). See also:

hyperaccumulators and contaminants: Radionuclides, Hydrocarbons and Organic Solvents – accumulation rates
Contaminant Accumulation rates (in mg/kg of dry weight) Latin name English name H-Hyperaccumulator or A-Accumulator P-Precipitator T-Tolerant Notes Sources
Cd Athyrium yokoscense (Japanese false spleenwort?) Cd(A), Cu(H), Pb(H), Zn(H) Origin Japan [1]
Cd >100 Avena strigosa Schreb. New-Oat
Lopsided Oat or Bristle Oat		 [2]
Cd H- Bacopa monnieri Smooth Water Hyssop, Waterhyssop, Brahmi, Thyme-leafed gratiola, Water hyssop Cr(H), Cu(H), Hg(A), Pb(A) Origin India; aquatic emergent species [1][3]
Cd Brassicaceae Mustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage family Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H) Phytoextraction [4]
Cd A- Brassica juncea L. Indian mustard Cr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), U(A), Zn(H) cultivated [1][4][5]
Cd H- Vallisneria americana Tape Grass Cr(A), Cu(H), Pb(H) Origins Europe and N. Africa; extensively cultivated in the aquarium trade [1]
Cd >100 Crotalaria juncea Sunn or sunn hemp High amounts of total soluble phenolics [2]
Cd H- Eichhornia crassipes Water Hyacinth Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb(H), Zn(A). Also Cs, Sr, U[6] and pesticides[7] Pantropical/Subtropical, 'the troublesome weed' [1]
Cd Helianthus annuus Sunflower Phytoextraction & rhizofiltration [1][4][8]
Cd H- Hydrilla verticillata Hydrilla Cr(A), Hg(H), Pb(H) [1]
Cd H- Lemna minor Duckweed Pb(H), Cu(H), Zn(A) Native to North America and widespread [1]
Cd T- Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce Cu(T), Hg(H), Cr(H) Pantropical, Origin South U.S.A.; aquatic herb [1]
Cd Salix viminalis L. Common Osier, Basket Willow Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalix);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [8]
Cd Spirodela polyrhiza Giant Duckweed Cr(H), Pb(H), Ni(H), Zn(A) Native to North America [1][10][11]
Cd >100 Tagetes erecta L. African-tall Tolerance only. Lipid peroxidation level increases; activities of antioxidative enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase, and catalase are depressed. [2]
Cd Thlaspi caerulescens Alpine pennycress Cr(A), Co(H), Cu(H), Mo, Ni(H), Pb(H), Zn(H) Phytoextraction. Its rhizosphere's bacterial population is less dense than with Trifolium pratense but richer in specific metal-resistant bacteria.[12] [1][4][10][13][14][15][16]
Cd 1000 Vallisneria spiralis Eel grass 37 records of plants; origin India [10][17]
Cs-137 Acer rubrum, Acer pseudoplatanus Red maple, Sycamore maple Pu-238, Sr-90 Leaves: much less uptake in Larch and Sycamore maple than in Spruce.[18] [6]
Cs-137 Agrostis spp. Agrostis spp. Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 up to 3000 Bq kg-1[19] Amaranthus retroflexus ( cv. Belozernii, aureus, Pt-95) Redroot Amaranth Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4] Phytoextraction. Can accumulate radionuclides, ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6] Maximum concentration is reached after 35 days of growth.[19]
Cs-137 Brassicaceae Mustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage family Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H) Phytoextraction. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6] [4]
Cs-137 Brassica juncea Indian mustard Contains 2 to 3 times more Cs-137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground[19] Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents. [6]
Cs-137 Cerastium fontanum Big Chickweed Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Beta vulgaris, Chenopodiaceae, Kail? and/or Salsola? Beet, Quinoa, Russian thistle Sr-90, Cs-137 Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Cocos nucifera Coconut palm Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth U, Sr (high % uptake within a few days[6]). Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A)[1] and pesticides.[7] [6]
Cs-137 Eragrostis bahiensis
(Eragrostis)		 Bahia lovegrass Glomus mosseae as amendment. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution. [6]
Cs-137 Eucalyptus tereticornis Forest redgum Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Festuca arundinacea Tall fescue Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Festuca rubra Fescue Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Glomus mosseae as chelating agent
(Glomus (fungus))		 Mycorrhizal fungi Glomus mosseae as amendment. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution. [6]
Cs-137 Glomus intradices
(Glomus (fungus))		 Mycorrhizal fungi Glomus mosseae as chelating agent. It increases the surface area of the plant roots, allowing roots to acquire more nutrients, water and therefore more available radionuclides in soil solution. [6]
Cs-137 4900-8600[20] Helianthus annuus Sunflower U, Sr (high % uptake within a few days[6]) Accumulates up to 8 times more Cs-137 than timothy or foxtail. Contains 2 to 3 times more Cs-137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground.[19] [1][6][10]
Cs-137 Larix Larch Leaves: much less uptake in Larch and Sycamore maple than in Spruce. 20% of the translocated caesium into new leaves resulted from root-uptake 2.5 years after the Chernobyl accident.[18]
Cs-137 Liquidambar styraciflua American Sweet Gum Pu-238, Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip tree Pu-238, Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Lolium multiflorum Italian Ryegrass Sr Mycorrhizae: accumulates much more Cs-137 and Sr-90 when grown in Sphagnum peat than in any other medium incl. Clay, sand, silt and compost.[21] [6]
Cs-137 Lolium perenne Perennial ryegrass Can accumulate radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 Panicum virgatum Switchgrass [6]
Cs-137 Phaseolus acutifolius Tepary Beans Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4] Phytoextraction. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents[6]
Cs-137 Phalaris arundinacea L. Reed canary grass Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Sr(H), Zn(H)[4] Ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride as chelating agents.[6] Phytoextraction
Cs-137 Picea abies Spruce Conc. about 25-times higher in bark compared to wood, 1.5–4.7 times higher in directly contaminated twig-axes than in leaves.[18]
Cs-137 Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa Monterey Pine, Ponderosa pine Sr-90. Also petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Pinus spp.[4] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides. [6]
Cs-137 Sorghum halepense Johnson Grass [6]
Cs-137 Trifolium repens White Clover Grass or Forb species capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Cs-137 H Zea mays Corn High absorption rate. Accumulates radionuclides.[16] Contains 2 to 3 times more Cs137 in his roots than in the biomass above ground.[19] [1][6][10]
Co 1000 to 4304[22] Haumaniastrum robertii
(Lamiaceae)		 Copper flower 27 records of plants; origin Africa. Vernacular name: 'copper flower'. This species' phanerogamme has the highest cobalt content. Its distribution could be governed by cobalt rather than copper.[22] [10][14]
Co H- Thlaspi caerulescens Alpine pennycress Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(H), Mo, Ni(H), Pb(H), Zn(H) Phytoextraction [1][4][10][12][13][14][15]
Pu-238 Acer rubrum Red maple Cs-137, Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Pu-238 Liquidambar styraciflua American Sweet Gum Cs-137, Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Pu-238 Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip tree Cs-137, Sr-90 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Ra No reports found for accumulation [10]
Sr Acer rubrum Red maple Cs-137, Pu-238 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Sr Brassicaceae Mustards, mustard flowers, crucifers or, cabbage family Cd(H), Cs(H), Ni(H), Zn(H) Phytoextraction [4]
Sr Beta vulgaris, Chenopodiaceae, Kail? and/or Salsola? Beet, Quinoa, Russian thistle Sr-90, Cs-137 Can accumulate radionuclides [6]
Sr Eichhornia crassipes Water Hyacinth Cs-137, U-234, 235, 238. Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A)[1] and pesticides.[7] In pH of 9, accumulates high concentrations of Sr-90 with approx. 80 to 90% of it in its roots[20] [6]
Sr Eucalyptus tereticornis Forest redgum Cs-137 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Sr H-? Helianthus annuus Sunflower Accumulates radionuclides;[16] high absorption rate. Phytoextraction & rhizofiltration [1][4][6][10]
Sr Liquidambar styraciflua American Sweet Gum Cs-137, Pu-238 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Sr Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip tree Cs-137, Pu-238 Tree able to accumulate radionuclides [6]
Sr Lolium multiflorum Italian Ryegrass Cs Mycorrhizae: accumulates much more Cs-137 and Sr-90 when grown in Sphagnum peat than in any other medium incl. clay, sand, silt and compost.[21] [6]
Sr 1.5-4.5 % in their shoots Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa Monterey Pine, Ponderosa pine Petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cs-137 Phytocontainment. Accumulate 1.5-4.5 % of Sr-90 in their shoots.[20] [6]
Sr Apiaceae (a.k.a. Umbelliferae) Carrot or parsley family Species most capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
Sr Fabaceae (a.k.a. Leguminosae) Legume, pea, or bean family Species most capable of accumulating radionuclides [6]
U Amaranthus Amaranth Cd(A), Cr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), Zn(H) Citric acid chelating agent[8] and see note. Cs: maximum concentration is reached after 35 days of growth.[19] [1][6]
U Brassica juncea, Brassica chinensis, Brassica narinosa Cabbage family Cd(A), Cr(A), Cu(H), Ni(H), Pb(H), Pb(P), Zn(H) Citric acid chelating agent increases uptake 1000 times,[8][23] and see note [1][4][6]
U-234, 235, 238 Eichhornia crassipes Water Hyacinth Cs-137, Sr-90. Also Cd(H), Cr(A), Cu(A), Hg(H), Pb, Zn(A),[1] and pesticides.[7] [6]
U-234, 235, 238 95% of U in 24 hours.[19] Helianthus annuus Sunflower Accumulates radionuclides;[16] At a contaminated wastewater site in Ashtabula, Ohio, 4 wk-old splants can remove more than 95% of uranium in 24 hours.[19] Phytoextraction & rhizofiltration. [1][4][6][8][10]URL
U Juniperus Juniper Accumulates (radionuclides) U in his roots[20] [6]
U Picea mariana Black Spruce Accumulates (radionuclides) U in his twigs[20] [6]
U Quercus Oak Accumulates (radionuclides) U in his roots[20] [6]
U Kail? and/or Salsola? Russian thistle (tumble weed)
U Salix viminalis Common Osier Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [8]
U Silene vulgaris (a.k.a. "Silene cucubalus) Bladder campion
U Zea mays Maize
U A-? [10]
Radionuclides Tradescantia bracteata Spiderwort Indicator for radionuclides: the stamens (normally blue or blue-purple) become pink when exposed to radionuclides [6]
Benzene Chlorophytum comosum spider plant [24]
Benzene Ficus elastica rubber fig, rubber bush, rubber tree, rubber plant, or Indian rubber bush [24]
Benzene Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Kalanchoe seems to take benzene selectively over toluene. [24]
Benzene Pelargonium x domesticum Germanium [24]
BTEX Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus DDT, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCP Phytostimulation [4]
DDT Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus BTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCP Phytostimulation [4]
Dieldrin Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus DDT, BTEX, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzene, PCP Phytostimulation [4]
Endosulfan Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus DDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, PCP, Pentachloronitro-benzène Phytostimulation [4]
Fluoranthene Cyclotella caspia Cyclotella caspia Approximate rate of biodegradation on 1st day: 35%; on 6th day: 85％ (rate of physical degradation 5.86％ only). [25]
Hydrocarbons Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Bermuda grass Mean petroleum hydrocarbons reduction of 68% after 1 year [26]
Hydrocarbons Festuca arundinacea Tall fescue Mean petroleum hydrocarbons reduction of 62% after 1 year[8] [27]
Hydrocarbons Pinus spp. Pine spp. Organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90[6] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6] [4]
Hydrocarbons Salix spp. Osier spp. Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [4]
MTBE Pinus spp. Pine spp. Petroleum hydrocarbons, Organic solvents, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6] [4]
MTBE Salix spp. Osier spp. Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction, phytocontainment. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [4]
Organic solvents Pinus spp. Pine spp. Petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6] [4]
Organic solvents Salix spp. Osier spp. Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. phytocontainment . Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [4]
Organic solvents Pinus spp. Pine spp. Petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6] [4]
Organic solvents Salix spp. Osier spp. Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, MTBE, TCE and by-products;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. phytocontainment . Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [4]
PCNB Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus DDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, PCP Phytostimulation [4]
Potassium ferrocyanide 8.64% to 15.67% of initial mass Salix babylonica L. Weeping Willow Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Salix spp.);[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes). No ferrocyanide in air from plant transpiration. A large fraction of initial mass was metabolized during transport within the plant.[9] [9]
Potassium ferrocyanide 8.64% to 15.67% of initial mass Salix matsudana Koidz, Salix matsudana Koidz x Salix alba L. Hankow Willow, Hybrid Willow Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE, TCE and by-products (Salix spp.);[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis).[8] No ferrocyanide in air from plant transpiration. [9]
PCB Rosa spp. Paul’s Scarlet Rose Phytodegradation [4]
PCP Phanerochaete chrysosporium White rot fungus DDT, BTEX, Dieldrin, Endodulfan, Pentachloronitro-benzène Phytostimulation [4]
TCE Chlorophytum comosum spider plant Seems to lower the removal rates of benzene and methane. [24]
TCE and by-products Pinus spp. Pine spp. Petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE.[4] Also Cs-137, Sr-90 (Pinus radiata, Pinus ponderosa)[6] Phytocontainment. Tree able to accumulate radionuclides (P. ponderosa, P. radiata)[6] [4]
TCE and by-products Salix spp. Osier spp. Ag, Cr, Hg, Se, petroleum hydrocarbons, organic solvents, MTBE;[4] Cd, Pb, U, Zn (S. viminalis);[8] Potassium ferrocyanide (S. babylonica L.)[9] Phytoextraction, phytocontainment. Perchlorate (wetland halophytes) [4]
Musa (genus) Banana tree Extra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration.[28]
Cyperus papyrus Papyrus Extra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration[28]
Taros Extra-dense root system, good for rhizofiltration[28]
Brugmansia spp. Angel's trumpet Semi-anaerobic, good for rhizofiltration [29]
Caladium Caladium Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Caltha palustris Marsh marigold Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Iris pseudacorus Yellow Flag, paleyellow iris Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Mentha aquatica Water Mint Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Scirpus lacustris Bulrush Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]
Typha latifolia Broadleaf cattail Semi-anaerobic and resistant, good for rhizofiltration[29]

Notes

  • Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt[8] and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals).
  • Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides.[31]
  • Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides.[30] See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984.[21] Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90 availability, and a lower base saturation for uptake of both Sr-90 and Cs-137.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Fertilizing the soil with nitrogen if needed will indirectly increase the take-up of radionuclides by generally boosting the plant's overall growth and more specifically roots' growth. But some fertilizers such as K or Ca compete with the radionuclides for cation exchange sites, and will not increase the take-up of radionuclides.[30]
  • Radionuclides: Zhu and Smolders, lab test:[32] Cs uptake is mostly influenced by K supply. The uptake of radiocaesium depends mainly on two transport pathways on plant root cell membranes: the K+ transporter and the K+ channel pathway. Cs is likely transported by the K+ transport system. When external concentration of K is limited to low levels, le K+ transporter shows little discrimination against Cs+; if K supply is high, the K+ channel is dominant and shows high discrimination against Cs+. Caesium is very mobile within the plant, but the ratio Cs/K is not uniform within the plant. Phytoremediation as a possible option for the decontamination of caesium-contaminated soils is limited mainly by that it takes tens of years and creates large volumes of waste.
  • Alpine pennycress or Alpine Pennygrass is found as Alpine Pennycrest in (some books).
  • The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field.
  • Radionuclides: Broadley and Willey[33] find that across 30 taxa studied, Gramineae and Chenopodiaceae show the strongest correlation between Rb (K) and Cs concentration. The fast-growing Chenopodiaceae discriminate approx. 9 times less between Rb and Cs than the slow-growingGramineae, and this correlate with highest and lowest concentrations achieved respectively.
  • Caesium: In Chernobyl-derived radioactivity, the amount of contamination is dependent on the roughness of bark, absolute bark surface and the existence of leaves during the deposition. The major contamination of the shoots is from direct deposition on the trees.[18]

Annotated References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 898
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 [1] Shimpei Uraguchi, Izumi Watanabe, Akiko Yoshitomi, Masako Kiyono and Katsuji Kuno, Characteristics of cadmium accumulation and tolerance in novel Cd-accumulating crops, Avena strigosa and Crotalaria juncea. Journal of Experimental Botany 2006 57(12):2955-2965; doi:10.1093/jxb/erl056
  3. ↑ Gurta et al. 1994
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 19
  5. ↑ "Analysis of Transgenic Indian Mustard Plants for Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Mine Tailings -- Bennett et al. 32 (2): 432 -- Journal of Environmental Quality". Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20070310042519/http://jeq.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/2/432. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  Lindsay E. Bennetta, Jason L. Burkheada, Kerry L. Halea, Norman Terryb, Marinus Pilona and Elizabeth A. H. Pilon-Smits, Analysis of Transgenic Indian Mustard Plants for Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Mine Tailings. Journal of Environmental Quality 32:432-440 (2003)
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.39 6.40 6.41 6.42 6.43 6.44 6.45 6.46 6.47 6.48 6.49 6.50 6.51 6.52 6.53 6.54 6.55 6.56 6.57 6.58 6.59 6.60 6.61 [2] Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "CSA". Archived from the original on 2011-05-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20110520035859/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=6028544&q=&uid=788532439&setcookie=yes. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  J.K. Lan. Recent developments of phytoremediation.
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 "Enhancing Phytoextraction: The Effect of Chemical Soil Manipulation on Mobility, Plant Accumulation, and Leaching of Heavy Metals -- Schmidt 32 (6): 1939 -- Journal of Environmental Quality". Archived from the original on 2007-02-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20070225035837/http://jeq.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/6/1939. Retrieved 2006-10-16. , Enhancing Phytoextraction: The Effect of Chemical Soil Manipulation on Mobility, Plant Accumulation, and Leaching of Heavy Metals, by Ulrich Schmidt.
  9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 [3] Yu X.Z., Zhou P.H. and Yang Y.M., The potential for phytoremediation of iron cyanide complex by Willows.
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 McCutcheon & Schnoor 2003, Phytoremediation. New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons pg 891
  11. ↑ Srivastav 1994
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "NRC Research Press". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20070311064304/http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_abst_e?cjm_w01-067_47_ns_nf_cjm47-01. Retrieved 2006-10-28.  T.A. Delorme, J.V. Gagliardi, J.S. Angle, and R.L. Chaney. Influence of the zinc hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl. and the nonmetal accumulator Trifolium pratense L. on soil microbial populations. Conseil National de Recherches du Canada
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 [4] Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, Nickelophilous plants and their significance in phytotechnologies. Braz. J. Plant Physiol. Vol.17 no.1 Londrina Jan./Mar. 2005
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Baker & Brooks, 1989
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils: Natural Hyperaccumulation versus Chemically Enhanced Phytoextraction -- Lombi et al. 30 (6): 1919 -- Journal of Environmental Quality". Archived from the original on 2007-03-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20070311051135/http://jeq.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/30/6/1919?maxtoshow=&HITS=&hits=&RESULTFORMAT=1&fulltext=phytoremediation+permaculture&andorexactfulltext=or&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  E. Lombi, F.J. Zhao, S.J. Dunham et S.P. McGrath, Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal, Contaminated Soils, Natural Hyperaccumulation versus Chemically Enhanced Phytoextraction.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Phytoremediation Decision Tree, ITRC
  17. ↑ Brown et al. 1995
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 [5], J. Ertel and H. Ziegler, Cs-134/137 contamination and root uptake of different forest trees before and after the Chernobyl accident, Radiation and Environmental Biophysics, June 1991, Vol. 30, nr. 2, pp. 147-157
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 Dushenkov, S., A. Mikheev, A. Prokhnevsky, M. Ruchko, and B. Sorochinsky, Phytoremediation of Radiocesium-Contaminated Soil in the Vicinity of Chernobyl, Ukraine. Environmental Science and Technology 1999. 33, no. 3 : 469-475. Cited in Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 Negri, C. M., and R. R. Hinchman, 2000. The use of plants for the treatment of radionuclides. Chapter 8 of Phytoremediation of toxic metals: Using plants to clean up the environment, ed. I. Raskin and B. D. Ensley. New York: Wiley-Interscience Publication. Cited in Phytoremediation of Radionuclides.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 A. Paasikallio, The effect of time on the availability of strontium-90 and cesium-137 to plants from Finnish soils. Annales Agriculturae Fenniae, 1984. 23: 109-120. Cited in Westhoff99.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 [6] R. R. Brooks, Copper and cobalt uptake by Haumaniustrum species.
  23. ↑ Huang, J. W., M. J. Blaylock, Y. Kapulnik, and B. D. Ensley, 1998. Phytoremediation of Uranium-Contaminated Soils: Role of Organic Acids in Triggering Uranium Hyperaccumulation in Plants. Environmental Science and Technology. 32, no. 13 : 2004-2008. Cited in Phytoremediation of radionuclides.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 [7] J.J.Cornejo, F.G.Muñoz, C.Y.Ma and A.J.Stewart, Studies on the decontamination of air by plants.
  25. ↑ "Toxicity of Fluoranthene and Its Biodegradation by Cyclotella caspia Alga -作者:Yu Liu,Tian-Gang Luan,Ning-Ning Lu,Chong-Yu Lan". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20070927212832/http://scholar.ilib.cn/Abstract.aspx?A=zwxb200602007. Retrieved 2006-10-19. . Yu Liu, Tian-Gang Luan, Ning-Ning Lu, Chong-Yu Lan, Toxicity of Fluoranthene and Its Biodegradation by Cyclotella caspia Alga. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, Fev. 2006
  26. ↑ "Phytoremediation of Aged Petroleum Sludge: Effect of Inorganic Fertilizer -- Hutchinson et al. 30 (2): 395 -- Journal of Environmental Quality". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102639/http://intl-jeq.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/30/2/395. Retrieved 2006-10-16.  S.L. Hutchinson, M.K. Banks and A.P. Schwab, Phytoremediation of Aged Petroleum Sludge, Effect of Inorganic Fertilizer
  27. ↑ [8] S.D. Siciliano, J.J. Germida, K. Banks and C. W. Greer. Changes in Microbial Community Composition and Function during a Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon Phytoremediation Field Trial. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, January 2003, p. 483-489, Vol. 69, No. 1
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 [9] "Living Machines". Erik Alm describes them as 'freaks' because of their over-abundant root system even in such nutrient-rich environments. This is a prime factor in treating wastewaters: more surface for adsorption / absorption, and finer filter for larger impurities
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 [10], "Living Machines". These marsh plants can live in semi-anaerobic environments and are used in wastewater treating ponds
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 [11] J.A. Entry, N.C. Vance, M.A. Hamilton, D. Zabowski, L.S. Watrud, D.C. Adriano. Phytoremediation of soil contaminated with low concentrations of radionuclides. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 1996. 88: 167-176. Cited in Westhoff99.
  31. ↑ J.A. Entry, P. T. Rygiewicz, W.H. Emmingham. Strontium-90 uptake by Pinus ponderosa and Pinus radiata seedlings inoculated with ectomycorrhizal fungi. Environmental Pollution 1994, 86: 201-206. Cited in Westhoff99.
  32. ↑ [12] Y-G. Zhu and E. Smolders, Plant uptake of radiocaesium: a review of mechanisms, regulation and application. Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol. 51, No. 351, pp. 1635-1645, October 2000
  33. ↑ [13] M.R. Broadley and N.J. Willey. Differences in root uptake of radiocaesium by 30 plant taxa. Environmental Pollution 1997, Volume 97, Issues 1-2, Pages 11-15

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