Biology:Pistachio

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Short description: Member of the cashew family

Pistacia vera
A tan, roasted pistacho shell with the seed visible through a gap in the shell
Roasted
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Pistacia
Species:
P. vera
Binomial name
Pistacia vera

The pistachio (/pɪˈstɑːʃi.oʊ, -ˈstæʃ-/ pih-STAH-shee-oh, -⁠STASH-;[2] Pistacia vera), a member of the cashew family, is a small tree originating from Iran (Persia). The tree produces seeds that are widely consumed as food.

Description

The tree grows up to 10 metres (33 feet) tall. It has deciduous, pinnate leaves 10–20 centimetres (4–8 inches) long. The plants are dioecious, with separate male and female trees. The flowers are apetalous and unisexual and borne in panicles.[citation needed]

Pistachio, Torbat-e Heydarieh, Razavi Khorasan, Iran
Torbat-e Heydarieh, Razavi Khorasan, Iran

The fruit is a drupe, containing an elongated seed, which is the edible portion. The seed, commonly thought of as a nut, is a culinary nut, not a botanical nut. The fruit has a hard, cream-colored exterior shell. The seed has a mauve-colored skin and light green flesh, with a distinctive flavor. When the fruit ripens, the shell changes from green to an autumnal yellow/red and abruptly splits partly open. This is known as dehiscence, and happens with an audible pop. The splitting open is a trait that has been selected by humans.[3] Commercial cultivars vary in how consistently they split open.

Each mature pistachio tree averages around 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of seeds, or around 50,000, every two years.[4]

Etymology

Pistachio is from late Middle English pistace, from Old French, superseded in the 16th century by forms from Italian pistacchio, via Latin from Greek πιστάκιον pistákion, and from Middle Persian pistakē.[5]

Distribution and habitat

The tree originates from an area that includes Iran.

Leaves of a pistachio tree in Syria
Leaves of a pistachio tree in Syria

Pistachio is a desert plant and is highly tolerant of saline soil. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3,000–4,000 ppm of soluble salts.[6] Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions and can survive temperatures ranging between −10 °C (14 °F) in winter and 48 °C (118 °F) in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil. Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit.[citation needed]

Dormant 'Kerman' Variety growing in California
Dormant 'Kerman' Variety, California

Cultivation

The pistachio tree may live up to 300 years.[7] The trees are planted in orchards, and take around 7 to 10 years to reach significant production. Production is alternate-bearing or biennial-bearing, meaning the harvest is heavier in alternate years. Peak production is reached around 20 years. Trees are usually pruned to size to make the harvest easier. One male tree produces enough pollen for 8 to 12 drupe-bearing females. Harvesting in the United States and in Greece is often accomplished using equipment to shake the drupes off the tree. After hulling and drying, pistachios are sorted according to open-mouth and closed-mouth shells, then roasted or processed by special machines to produce pistachio kernels.[citation needed]

In California, almost all female pistachio trees are the 'Kerman' cultivar, from Kerman, Iran. A scion from a mature female 'Kerman' is grafted onto a one-year-old rootstock.[citation needed]

History

The pistachio tree is native to regions of Central Asia, including present-day Iran and Afghanistan.[8][9][10][11] Archaeology shows that pistachio seeds were a common food as early as 6750 BCE.[12] The earliest evidence of pistachio consumption goes back to the Bronze Age Central Asia and comes from Djarkutan, modern Uzbekistan.[13][14]

Pistachio trees were introduced from Asia to Europe in the first century AD by the Romans. They are cultivated across Southern Europe and North Africa.[15]

Theophrastus described it as a terebinth-like tree with almond-like nuts from Bactria.[16]

It appears in Dioscorides' writings as pistákia (πιστάκια), recognizable as P. vera by its comparison to pine nuts.[17]

Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History that pistacia, "well known among us", was one of the trees unique to Syria, and that the seed was introduced into Italy by the Roman proconsul in Syria, Lucius Vitellius the Elder (in office in 35 AD) and into Hispania at the same time by Flaccus Pompeius.[18]

The early sixth-century manuscript De observatione ciborum (On the Observance of Foods) by Anthimus implies that pistacia remained well known in Europe in late antiquity.[citation needed]

An article on pistachio tree cultivation was brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[19]

Archaeologists have found evidence from excavations at Jarmo in northeastern Iraq for the consumption of Atlantic pistachio.[12]

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King Marduk-apla-iddina II about 700 BCE.[12]

In the 19th century, the pistachio was cultivated commercially in parts of the English-speaking world, such as Australia and in the US in New Mexico[6] and California, where it was introduced in 1854 as a garden tree.[20]

In 1904 and 1905, David Fairchild of the United States Department of Agriculture introduced hardier cultivars to California collected from China, but it was not promoted as a commercial crop until 1929.[6][21] Walter T. Swingle's pistachios from Syria had already fruited well at Niles, California, by 1917.[22]

In 1969 and 1971, changes to the tax code in the United States eliminated tax shelters for almonds and citrus fruits. That encouraged California farmers to plant pistachio trees, because they were still eligible for such tax breaks. In 1972, the Shah of Iran began a school breakfast program that included packets of pistachios. This resulted in a decline of pistachio exports from Iran, resulting in increased prices in other countries and additional incentives to plant pistachio trees in California.[23] The first commercial pistachio harvest in California took place in 1976.[24] The Shah was forced into exile in January, 1979 during the Iranian Revolution, resulting in an end to trade between the United States and Iran, providing additional incentives for American farmers to plant dramatically more pistachio trees.[23]

By 2008, U.S. pistachio production rivaled that of Iran. Drought and unusually cold weather in Iran led to severe declines in production there, while U.S. production was increasing. At that time, pistachios were Iran's #2 export product, after the oil and gas sector.[25]

By 2020, there were 150,000 pistachio farmers in Iran, approximately 70% of whom were small-scale producers using inefficient manual picking and processing techniques. There were 950 far larger U.S. producers, using highly efficient mechanized production techniques. Between them, the U.S. and Iran control 70% of the world export market, with the U.S. in the lead. Worldwide demand exceeds production, so both countries have the ability to sell their production to various export markets.[24]

In 2021, Fresno County, California accounted for about 40% of U.S. pistachio production, with a value of $722 million.[26]

Diseases and environment

Pistachio trees are vulnerable to numerous diseases and infestation by insects such as Leptoglossus clypealis in North America.[27] Among these is infection by the fungus Botryosphaeria, which causes panicle and shoot blight (symptoms include death of the flowers and young shoots), and can damage entire pistachio orchards.[28] In 2004, the rapidly growing pistachio industry in California was threatened by panicle and shoot blight first discovered in 1984.[29] In 2011, anthracnose fungus caused a sudden 50% loss in the Australian pistachio harvest.[30] Several years of severe drought in Iran around 2008 to 2015 caused significant declines in production.[31]

Production

Pistachio production, 2021
Country Production
metric tonnes (LT, ST)
United States 523,900 (515,600; 577,500)
Iran 135,000 (133,000; 149,000)
Turkey 119,355 (117,470; 131,566)
China 78,817.5 (77,572.7; 86,881.4)
Syria 43,104.3 (42,423.5; 47,514.4)
World 915,717.92 (901,255.55; 1,009,406.22)
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[32]

In 2021, global production of pistachios was about 0.9 million metric tons (890,000 long tons; 990,000 short tons), with the United States and Iran as leading producers, together accounting for 72% of the total (table). Secondary producers were Turkey, China, and Syria.[32]

A 2020 report indicated that nearly half of the global production of pistachios in 2019 came from the United States, with production in Iran falling to as low as 7% due to US trade sanctions against Iran, climate change, and weak economic and water management in Iran.[33][34] Efforts to grow pistachios for international markets were made during 2019 in Georgia and adjacent Caucasus countries.[33] More organic production is being promoted in Spain.[35]

Toxicity

As with other tree seeds, aflatoxin is found in poorly harvested or processed pistachios. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. The mold contamination may occur from soil or poor storage, and be spread by pests. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament-like growth. Eating mold-infected and aflatoxin-contaminated pistachios is unsafe.[36] Aflatoxin contamination is a frequent risk, particularly in warmer and humid environments. Food contaminated with aflatoxins has been found as the cause of frequent outbreaks of acute illnesses in parts of the world. In some cases, such as Kenya, this has led to several deaths.[37]

Pistachio shells typically split naturally prior to harvest, with a hull covering the intact seeds. The hull protects the kernel from invasion by molds and insects, but this hull protection can be damaged in the orchard by poor orchard management practices, by birds, or after harvest, which makes exposure to contamination much easier. Some pistachios undergo so-called "early split", wherein both the hull and the shell split. Damage or early splits can lead to aflatoxin contamination.[38] In some cases, a harvest may be treated to keep contamination below strict food safety thresholds; in other cases, an entire batch of pistachios must be destroyed because of aflatoxin contamination.

Like other members of the family Anacardiaceae (which includes poison ivy, sumac, mango, and cashew), pistachios contain urushiol, an irritant that can cause allergic reactions.[39]

Large quantities of pistachios are self-heating in the presence of moisture due to their high oil content in addition to naturally occurring lipases, and can spontaneously combust if stored with a combustible fabric such as jute.[40]

Uses

Pistachio Turkish delight

The kernels are often eaten whole, either fresh or roasted and salted, and are also used in pistachio ice cream, traditional Persian ice cream, kulfi, spumoni, pistachio butter,[41][42] pistachio paste,[43] and confections such as baklava, pistachio chocolate,[44] pistachio halva,[45] pistachio lokum or biscotti, and cold cuts such as mortadella. Americans make pistachio salad, which includes fresh pistachios or pistachio pudding, whipped cream, and canned fruit.[46] Indian cooking uses pounded pistachios with grilled meats, and in pilao rice dishes.

The shell of the pistachio is naturally a beige color, but it may be dyed red or green in commercial pistachios. Originally, dye was applied to hide stains on the shells caused when the nuts were picked by hand.[47] In the 21st century, most pistachios are harvested by machine and the shells remain unstained.[47]

Nutrition

Pistachio nuts, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy2,351 kJ (562 kcal)
27.51 g
Sugars7.66 g
Dietary fiber10.3 g
45.39 g
Saturated5.556 g
Monounsaturated23.820 g
Polyunsaturated13.744 g
20.27 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
1205 μg
Thiamine (B1)
76%
0.87 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
13%
0.160 mg
Niacin (B3)
9%
1.300 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
10%
0.52 mg
Vitamin B6
131%
1.700 mg
Folate (B9)
13%
51 μg
Vitamin C
7%
5.6 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 μg
Vitamin E
15%
2.3 mg
Vitamin K
13%
13.2 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
11%
105 mg
Iron
30%
3.92 mg
Magnesium
34%
121 mg
Manganese
57%
1.2 mg
Phosphorus
70%
490 mg
Potassium
22%
1025 mg
Zinc
23%
2.2 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water4 g
Link to USDA database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Raw pistachios are 4% water, 45% fat, 28% carbohydrates, and 20% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, pistachios provide 2,351 kilojoules (562 kcal) of food energy and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value or DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several dietary minerals, and the B vitamins thiamin (76% DV) and vitamin B6 (131% DV) (table).[48] Pistachios are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of calcium, riboflavin, vitamin B5, folate, vitamin E, and vitamin K (table).

The fat profile of raw pistachios consists of saturated fats, monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats.[48][49] Saturated fatty acids include palmitic acid (10% of total) and stearic acid (2%).[49] Oleic acid is the most common monounsaturated fatty acid (51% of total fat)[49] and linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid, is 31% of total fat.[48] Relative to other tree nuts, pistachios have a lower amount of fat and food energy but higher amounts of potassium, vitamin K, γ-tocopherol, and certain phytochemicals such as carotenoids, and phytosterols.[50][51]

Research and health effects

Salted pistachio nuts in West Bengal, India.

In July 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved the first qualified health claim specific to consumption of seeds (including pistachios) to lower the risk of heart disease: "Scientific evidence suggests but does not prove that eating 1.5 ounces (42.5 g) per day of most nuts, such as pistachios, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease".[52] Although a typical serving of pistachios supplies substantial food energy (nutrition table), their consumption in normal amounts is not associated with weight gain or obesity.[50]

One review found that pistachio consumption lowered blood pressure in persons without diabetes mellitus.[53] A 2021 review found that pistachio consumption for three months or less significantly reduced triglyceride levels.[54]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Participants of the FFI/IUCN SSC Central Asian regional tree Red Listing workshop, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (11–13 July 2006) (2007). Pistacia vera. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2007: e.T63497A12670823. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2007.RLTS.T63497A12670823.en
  2. ↑ "Pistachio". Pistachio. Oxford University Press. http://www.lexico.com/definition/Pistachio. 
  3. ↑ Towards a comprehensive documentation and use of Pistacia genetic diversity in Central and West Asia, North Africa and Europe, Report of the IPGRI Workshop, 14–17 December 1998, Irbid, Jordan – S.Padulosi and A. Hadj-Hassan, editors
  4. ↑ Nugent, Jeff; Julia Boniface (30 March 2005). "Pistachio Nuts". Permaculture Plants: A Selection. Permanent Publications. p. 41. ISBN 978-1856230292. https://books.google.com/books?id=40n-Z_8ihZMC&pg=PA41. 
  5. ↑ "Pistachio". Pistachio. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pistachio. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Esteban Herrera (1997) Growing pistachios in New Mexico, New Mexico State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Circular 532 [1]
  7. ↑ "Pistachio cultivation (translated)". 18 March 2019. http://www.infoagro.com/frutas/frutos_secos/pistacho.htm. 
  8. ↑ Marks, Gil (2010) (in en). Encyclopedia of Jewish Food. HMH. ISBN 978-0544186316. https://books.google.com/books?id=gFK_yx7Ps7cC&pg=PT1. "These pale green nuts covered with a papery skin grow on a small deciduous tree native to Persia, the area that still produces the best pistachios." 
  9. ↑ "Pistacia vera L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science". http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:70280-1. 
  10. ↑ "Pistachio | Description, Uses, & Nutrition" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/plant/pistachio-plant. "The pistachio tree is believed to be indigenous to Iran." 
  11. ↑ V. Tavallali and M. Rahemi (2007). "Effects of Rootstock on Nutrient Acquisition by Leaf, Kernel and Quality of Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.)". American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci. 2 (3): 240–246. http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/53e4/b0db43473510e6cbadb0b076bb77791f498a.pdf. "Native P. vera forests are located in north eastern part of Iran particularly in Sarakhs region. This native P. vera is the origin of cultivated pistachio trees in Iran [1]. P. mutica is a wild species indigenous to Iran, growing with almond, oak and other forest trees common to most Alpine regions.". 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "History and Agriculture of the Pistachio Nut". IRECO. http://www.ireco.lu/UK/pistachionut.html. 
  13. ↑ D. T. Potts (21 May 2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Volume 1. John Wiley & Sons. p. 199. ISBN 978-1405189880. https://books.google.com/books?id=7lK6l7oF_ccC&pg=PA199. 
  14. ↑ Harlan Walker (1996). Cooks and Other People. Oxford Symposium. p. 84. ISBN 978-0907325727. https://books.google.com/books?id=lpOqTUucwhUC&pg=PA84. 
  15. ↑ Davidson (1999)Oxford Companion to food, Oxford University Press
  16. ↑ Theophrastus (1916). Enquiry into Plants. 1. Translated by Sir Arthur Hort. London: William Heinemann. pp. 317. 
  17. ↑ James Strong, ed. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, s.v. "Nut".
  18. ↑ Pliny's Natural History, xiii.10.5, xv.22.
  19. ↑ Ibn al-'Awwam, Yaḥyá (1864) (in fr). Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah). Paris: A. Franck. pp. 245–248 (ch. 7 – Article 14). OCLC 780050566. https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up.  (pp. 245–248 (Article XIV)
  20. ↑ Rieger, Mark (2012). "Pistachio – pistacia vera". University of Georgia. http://www.uga.edu/fruit/pistachio-pistacia-vera/. 
  21. ↑ Fairchild, David (1938). The World Was My Garden. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 174. ISBN 068684310X. https://archive.org/details/worldwasmygarden00fair. ; Commissioner of Horticulture of the State of California,Biennial report1905/06, vol. II:392.
  22. ↑ Liberty Hyde Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture: II.Crops, 1917, s.v."Importance of plant introduction" p. [page needed]
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Blackburn, Mark (October 3, 1979). "California Pistachios With Perfect Timing". New York Times. https://nyti.ms/1H8l3ng. Retrieved February 21, 2023. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Durkin, Andrea (April 14, 2020). "Pistachios: The Quirks of Agricultural Trade in a Nutshell". Global Trade. https://www.globaltrademag.com/pistachios-the-quirks-of-agricultural-trade-in-a-nutshell/. Retrieved February 21, 2023. 
  25. ↑ Dahl, Frederick (October 8, 2008). "Iran faces U.S. challenge in "pistachio war"". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-pistachios/iran-faces-u-s-challenge-in-pistachio-war-idUSTRE49806E20081009. Retrieved February 21, 2023. 
  26. ↑ Fitchette, Todd (October 28, 2022). "Fresno leads nation in almond, pistachio production:The county amassed a record value of just over $8 billion last year.". Farm Progress. https://www.farmprogress.com/tree-nuts/fresno-leads-nation-in-almond-pistachio-production. Retrieved February 21, 2022. 
  27. ↑ Bolkan, Hasan (1 March 1984). "Leaf-footed bug implicated in pistachio epicarp lesion". California Agriculture 38: 16–17. http://calag.ucanr.edu/archive/?article=ca.v038n03p16. 
  28. ↑ Parfitt, D.E.; Arjmand, N.; Michailides, T.J. (July 2003). "Resistance to Botryosphaeria dothidea in pistachio". HortScience 38 (4): 529. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.38.4.529. 
  29. ↑ "California Pistachio Industry Threatened By Potentially Devastating Disease". 12 January 2004. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040112071931.htm. 
  30. ↑ Keim, Brandon (26 April 2011). "Australia Pistachio Disaster Hints at Agricultural Breakdown". Wired Magazine-Science. https://www.wired.com/2011/04/pistachio-disease/. 
  31. ↑ Erdbrink, Thomas (18 December 2015). "Scarred Riverbeds and Dead Pistachio Trees in a Parched Iran". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/19/world/middleeast/scarred-riverbeds-and-dead-pistachio-trees-in-a-parched-iran.html. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Pistachio production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2020. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Champion, Marc (21 February 2020). "The U.S.–Iran pistachio war is heating up". Bloomberg Businessweek. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-21/the-u-s-iran-pistachio-war-is-heating-up. 
  34. ↑ "Iranian Pistachios Face Tough Competition from the US" (in en). 23 October 2019. https://www.tridge.com/stories/iranian-pistachios-face-tough-competition-from-the-us. 
  35. ↑ "'Green gold': Spanish farmers ditch olives for pistachios in bid to survive". 27 August 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/aug/27/spainish-farmers-pistachio-nuts-olives-grapes-wheat-drought-resistant-crop. 
  36. ↑ E. Boutrif (1998). "Prevention of aflatoxin in pistachios". FAO, United Nations. https://nootropicsfrontline.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/wiki_Prevention-of-aflatoxin-in-pistachios.pdf. 
  37. ↑ "Aflatoxins in pistachios". European Union. 2008. http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/downloads/jrc_irmm_aflatoxins_leaflet.pdf. 
  38. ↑ Doster and Michailides (1994). "Aspergillus Moulds and Aflatoxins in Pistachio Nuts in California". Phytopathology 84 (6): 583–590. doi:10.1094/phyto-84-583. 
  39. ↑ Mabberley, D. J. (1993). The Plant Book. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 27. ISBN 0521340608. https://archive.org/details/plantbookportabl0000mabb/page/27. 
  40. ↑ "Pistachio Nuts – RF Self-heating / Spontaneous combustion". The German Insurance Association. https://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/nuesse/pistazie/pistazie.htm/#selbsterhitzung. 
  41. ↑ Ardekani, A. S. H.; Shahedi, M.; Kabir, G. (2009). "Optimizing Formulation of Pistachio Butter Production". Journal of Science and Technology of Agriculture and Natural Resources 13 (47): 49–59. http://journals.iut.ac.ir/emag/jstnar/eabsv13n47y2009p60.pdf. 
  42. ↑ Ardakani; Shahedi, M.; Kabir, G. (2006). Optimizing of the process of pistachio butter production. Acta Horticulturae. 726. pp. 565–568. http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_94.htm. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
  43. ↑ Shakerardekani, A.; Karim, R.; Mohd Ghazali, H.; Chin, N. L. (2011). "Effect of roasting conditions on hardness, moisture content and colour of pistachio kernels". International Food Research Journal 18: 704–710. http://www.ifrj.upm.edu.my/18%20(02)%202011/(35)%20IFRJ-2010-286.pdf. 
  44. ↑ Ardakani (2006). The vital role of pistachio processing industries in development of Iran non-oil exports. Acta Horticulturae. 726. pp. 579–581. http://www.pubhort.org/actahort/books/726/726_97.htm. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
  45. ↑ Shaker Ardakai, A. et al. (2007). "Pistachio Halva Production". Document Number: 29328 (Iran Pistachio Research Institute). http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=2009%2FIR%2FIR0901.xml%3BIR2008001687. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
  46. ↑ "Pistachio Salad". RecipeSource. http://www.recipesource.com/fgv/salads/18/rec1881.html. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Spiegel, Alison (2 February 2015). "Remember Red Pistachios? Here's What Happened To Them". The Huffington Post. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-are-red-pistachios_n_6570944. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 "Pistachio nuts, raw per 100 g". Release SR-28. USDA National Nutrient Database. 2016. https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170184/nutrients. [|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Okay Y (2002). "The comparison of some pistachio cultivars regarding their fat, fatty acids and protein content". Die Gartenbauwissenschaft 67 (3): 107–113. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Bulló, M; Juanola-Falgarona, M; Hernández-Alonso, P; Salas-Salvadó, J (April 2015). "Nutrition attributes and health effects of pistachio nuts". The British Journal of Nutrition 113 (Supplement 2): S79–93. doi:10.1017/S0007114514003250. PMID 26148925. 
  51. ↑ Dreher, ML (April 2012). "Pistachio nuts: composition and potential health benefits". Nutrition Reviews 70 (4): 234–240. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00467.x. PMID 22458696. 
  52. ↑ Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling and Dietary Supplements (23 July 2003). "Qualified Health Claims: Letter of Enforcement Discretion – Nuts and Coronary Heart Disease (Docket No 02P-0505)". Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qhcnuts2.html. 
  53. ↑ Mohammadifard, N; Salehi-Abargouei, A; Salas-Salvadó, J; Guasch-Ferré, M; Humphries, K; Sarrafzadegan, N (May 2015). "The effect of tree nut, peanut, and soy nut consumption on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 101 (5): 966–982. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.091595. PMID 25809855. 
  54. ↑ Muley, Arti (2021). "Effect of tree nuts on glycemic outcomes in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review". JBI Evidence Synthesis 19 (5): 966–1002. doi:10.11124/JBISRIR-D-19-00397. PMID 33141798. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q36071 entry



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