Chemistry:Aluminium-ion battery

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Short description: Type of battery

Aluminium-ion batteries are a class of rechargeable battery in which aluminium ions serve as charge carriers. Aluminium can exchange three electrons per ion. This means that insertion of one Al3+ is equivalent to three Li+ ions. Thus, since the ionic radii of Al3+ (0.54 Å) and Li+ (0.76 Å) are similar, significantly higher numbers of electrons and Al3+ ions can be accepted by cathodes with little damage.[1][2] Al has 50 times (23.5 megawatt-hours m-3) the energy density of Li and is even higher than coal.[3]

The trivalent charge carrier, Al3+ is both the advantage and disadvantage of this battery.[4] While transferring 3 units of charge by one ion significantly increases the energy storage capacity, the electrostatic intercalation of the electrodes with a trivalent cation is too strong for well-defined electrochemical behaviour. Theoretically, the gravimetric capacity of Al-ion batteries is 2980 mAh/g while its volumetric capacity would be 2980 mAh/g for the dissolution of Al to Al3+.[5][6] In reality, however, the redox reaction is more complicated and involves other reactants such as AlCl4-. When this is taken into account, theoretical gravimetric capacity becomes 67 mAh/g.[5]

Rechargeable aluminium-based batteries offer the possibilities of low cost and low flammability, together with high capacity.[7] Aluminium's inertness and ease of handling in an ambient environment potentially offer significant safety improvements. Hence, aluminium batteries have the potential to be smaller in size. Al-ion batteries may also have more charge-discharge cycles. Thus, Al-ion batteries have the potential to replace Li-ion batteries.[2]

This type of battery can undergo a large number of discharging and charging cycles.

Design

Like all other batteries, aluminium-ion batteries include two electrodes connected by an electrolyte. Unlike lithium-ion batteries, where the mobile ion is Li+, aluminium forms a complex with chloride in most electrolytes and generates an anionic mobile charge carrier, usually AlCl4− or Al2Cl7−.[8]

The amount of energy or power that a battery can release is dependent on factors including the battery cell's voltage, capacity and chemical composition. A battery can maximize its energy output levels by:

  • Increasing chemical potential difference between the two electrodes[9]
  • Reducing the mass of reactants[9]
  • Preventing the electrolyte from being modified by the chemical reactions[9]

The Electrolyte

Currently, the most commonly used electrolyte for rechargeable Al batteries are acidic room temperature non-aqueous ionic liquids (IL) made of aluminium chloride (AlCl3) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([EmIm]Cl).[5][6][10][11] This addressed the initial issue that prevented Al batteries from becoming rechargeable: Al readily reacts to form a passivating oxide coating that is chemically inert and an extremely high potential is necessary to push ions through this layer.[10] This high potential would degrade the electrolyte during recharging.[10] The use of the ionic liquid as an electrolyte prevents passivation and allowed Al batteries to become rechargeable.[10] As mentioned earlier, the active species in the IL electrolyte are AlCl4- and Al2Cl7-.[10] [12]

This electrolyte also faces multiple challenges. In the forefront of those challenges is their sensitivity to moisture.[10][12] The electrolyte and water exothermically react to form gasses such as H2, Cl2 and HCl which causes cell expansion/distortion and reduction in performance (lower Coulombic efficiency, irreversible decay of capacity).[11][12] The end result is an unstable cell, safety issues due leakage and corrosion, and more complex and costly manufacturing requirements.[10][11][12] Liquid electrolytes have also faced issues such as poor electrode-electrolyte interface.[13] All these issues have limited practical application of the cell.

Some have addressed these issues by replacing the liquid IL with a gel IL electrolyte. The gel IL makes use of a polymer framework that helps mitigate the effects of moisture by inhibiting the IL from reacting with water.[12][13] This solution has faced its own problems such as the relatively poor mechanical strength of the polymer [13] and while it does reduce moisture sensitivity, the problem persists.[12] Another solution that has been of interest is the use of quasi-solid-state or solid-state electrolytes.[12][13] An example of a quasi-solid-state electrolyte is the use of Zirconium-based metal organic framework (MOF) impregnated with the IL like in the work of Huang et al.[12] The MOF provides protection to the IL by reducing contact with moisture.[12] Aside from improving moisture stability, the added advantage of this solution is its increased safety and flexible architecture.[13]

In general, the electrolyte for rechargeable Al batteries needs to satisfy the following requirements:

  1. Have an appropriately ranged electrochemical window where side reactions of the main redox reaction do not occur [14]
  2. Have no side reactions with the electrodes or any intermediate product[14]
  3. Be an electron-insulator but an ion-conductor.[14] That is, it must block electron flow but allow ions to pass through it.
  4. Solvation (interaction with solvent molecules) and desolvation (interaction with active ions) should be moderate. If it is too weak, it would not be able to dissolve the salts. If it is too strong, the activation energy will be too high.[14]

Electrochemistry

Anode half reaction:

[math]\ce{ {Al} + {7AlCl4^-} <=> {4Al2Cl7^-} + {3e^-} }[/math]

Cathode half reaction:

[math]\ce{ {2MnO2} + {Li+} + {e^-} <=> {LiMn2O4} }[/math]

Combining the two half reactions yields the following reaction:

[math]\ce{ {Al} + {7AlCl4^-} + {6MnO2} + {3Li+} <=> {4Al2Cl7^-} + {3LiMn2O4} }[/math]

Lithium-ion comparison

Aluminium-ion batteries are conceptually similar to lithium-ion batteries, but possess an aluminium charge carrier instead of lithium. While the theoretical voltage for aluminium-ion batteries is lower than lithium-ion batteries, 2.65 V and 4 V respectively, the theoretical energy density potential for aluminium-ion batteries is 1060 Wh/kg in comparison to lithium-ion's 406 Wh/kg limit.[15]

Today's lithium ion batteries have high power density (fast charge/discharge) and high energy density (hold a lot of charge). They can also develop dendrites that can short-circuit and catch fire whereas the non-volatile and nonflammable ionic liquid electrolyte in the Al battery improves its safety.[14] The use of Al metal anode compared to Li metal also provides increased safety as the former has better air stability.[14] Aluminium also transfers energy more efficiently because of its 3 electrons.[16] Aluminium is more abundant/costs less than lithium, lowering material costs.[17]

Challenges

Aluminium-ion batteries to date have a relatively short shelf life. The combination of heat, rate of charge, and cycling can dramatically affect energy capacity. One of the reasons is the fracture of the graphite anode. Al atoms are far larger than Li atoms.[18]

Ionic electrolytes, while improving safety and the long term stability of the devices by minimizing corrosion, are expensive and may therefore be unsuitable.[19]

Research

Various research teams are experimenting with aluminium to produce better batteries. Requirements include cost, durability, capacity, charging speed, and safety.

Anode

Cornell University

In 2021, researchers announced a cell that used a 3D structured anode in which layers of aluminium accumulate evenly on an interwoven carbon fiber structure via covalent bonding as the battery is charged. The thicker anode features faster kinetics, and the prototype operated for 10k cycles without signs of failure.[20]

Electrolyte

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Around 2010,[15] Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) developed and patented a high energy density device, producing 1,060 watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg).[17] ORNL used an ionic electrolyte, instead of the typical aqueous electrolyte which can produce hydrogen gas and corrode the anode. The electrolyte was made of 3-ethyl-1-methylimidazolium chloride with excess aluminium trichloride.[21] However, ionic electrolytes are less conductive, reducing power density. Reducing anode/cathode separation can offset the limited conductivity, but causes heating. ORNL devised a cathode made up of spinel manganese oxide that further reduced corrosion.[15]

Cathode

Cornell University

In 2011 a research team used the same electrolyte as ORNL, but used vanadium oxide nanowires for the cathode.[22] Vanadium oxide has an open crystal structure with greater surface area and reduced path between cathode and anode. The device produced a large output voltage. However, the battery had a low coulombic efficiency.[21]

Stanford University

In April 2015 researchers at Stanford University claimed to have developed an aluminium-ion battery with a recharge time of about one minute (for an unspecified battery capacity).[7] Their cell provides about 2 volts, 4 volts if connected in a series of two cells.[7][23] The prototype lasted over 7,500 charge-discharge cycles with no loss of capacity.[24][25]

The battery was made of an aluminium anode, liquid electrolyte, isolation foam, and a graphite cathode. During the charging process, AlCl4− ions intercalate among the graphene stacked layers. While discharging, AlCl4− ions rapidly de-intercalate through the graphite. The cell displayed high durability, withstanding more than 10,000 cycles without a capacity decay. The cell was stable, nontoxic, bendable and nonflammable.[26]

In 2016, the lab tested these cells through collaborating with Taiwan's Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) to power a motorbike using an expensive electrolyte. In 2017, a urea-based electrolyte was tested that was about 1% of the cost of the 2015 model.[27] The battery exhibits ~99.7% Coulombic efficiency and a rate capability of [math]\ce{ 100 mA/g }[/math] at a cathode capacity of [math]\ce{ 73 mAh/g }[/math] (1.4 C).[28]

ALION Project

In June 2015, the High Specific Energy Aluminium-Ion Rechargeable Batteries for Decentralized Electricity Generation Sources (ALION) project was launched by a consortium of materials and component manufacturers and battery assemblers as a European Horizon 2020 project led by the LEITAT research institute.[29][30] The project objective is to develop a prototype Al-ion battery that could be used for large-scale storage from decentralized sources. The project sought to achieve an energy density of 400 Wh/kg, a voltage of 48 volts and a charge-discharge life of 3000 cycles. 3D printing of the battery packs allowed for large Al-ion cells developed, with voltages ranging from 6 to 72 volts.[31]

University Of Maryland

In 2016, a University of Maryland team reported an aluminium/sulfur battery that utilizes a sulfur/carbon composite as the cathode. The chemistry provides a theoretical energy density of 1340 Wh/kg. The prototype cell demonstrated energy density of 800 Wh/kg for over 20 cycles.[32]

MIT

In 2022, MIT researches reported a design that used cheap and nonflammable ingredients, including an aluminium anode and a sulfur cathode, separated by a molten chloro-aluminate salt electrolyte. The prototype withstood hundreds of charge cycles, and charged quickly. They can operate at temperatures of up to 200 °C (392 °F). At 110 °C (230 °F), the batteries charged 25 times faster than at 25 °C (77 °F). This temperature can be maintained by the charge/discharge cycle. The salt has a low melting point and prevents dendrite formation.[33] One potential application is at charging stations, where a pre-charged battery could allow the station to charge more vehicles simultaneously without a costly upgrade to the power line.[34] Spinoff company Avanti, co-founded by one of the researchers, is attempting to commercialize the work.[33]

Chalmers University of Technology and the National Institute of Chemistry in Slovenia

In 2019 researchers proposed using anthraquinone for the cathode in an aluminium ion battery.[35]

Queensland University of Technology

In 2019 researchers from Queensland University of Technology developed cryptomelane based electrodes as cathode for Aluminium ion battery with an aqueous electrolyte.[36]

Clemson University

In 2017, researchers at Clemson Nanomaterials Institute used a graphene electrode to intercalate tetrachloroaluminate (AlCl−4).[8] The team constructed batteries with aluminium anodes, pristine or modified few-layer graphene cathodes, and an ionic liquid with AlCl3 salt as the electrolyte.[8] They claimed that the battery can operate over 10,000 cycles with an energy density of 200 Wh/kg.[37]

Zhejiang University

In December 2017 a Zhejiang University team announced a battery using graphene films as cathode and metallic aluminium as anode.

The 3H3C (Trihigh Tricontinuous) design results in a graphene film cathode with excellent electrochemical properties. Liquid crystal graphene formed a highly oriented structure. High temperature annealing under pressure produced a high quality and high channelling graphene structure. Claimed properties:[38][39]

  • Retained 91.7 percent of original capacity after 250k cycles.
  • 1.1 second charge time.
  • Temperature range: -40 to 120 C.
  • Current capacity: 111 mAh/g, 400 A/g
  • Bendable and non-flammable.
  • Low energy density

Redox battery

Another approach to an aluminum battery is to use redox reactions to charge and discharge. The charging process converts Aluminium oxide or Aluminium hydroxide, into ionic aluminium, using electrolysis, typically at an aluminium smelter. This requires temperatures of 800 °C (1,470 °F). One report estimated possible efficiency at around 65%. Although ionic aluminium oxidizes in the presence of air, this costs less than 1% of the energy storage capacity.[3]

Discharging the battery involves oxidizing the aluminium, typically with water at temperatures less than 100 °C. This yields aluminium hydroxide and ionic hydrogen. The latter can produce electricity via a fuel cell. The oxidation in the fuel cell generates heat, which can support space or water heating.[3]

A higher-temperature process could support industrial applications. It operates at over 200 °C, reacting aluminium with steam to generate aluminium oxide, hydrogen and additional heat.[3]

The ionic aluminium could be stored at the smelter. One approach charges the battery at a smelter, and discharges it wherever power and heat are needed.[3] Alternatively, electricity could be fed into the grid at the smelter, without the need for transport, although for maximum round-trip efficiency, the heat would have to be used at the smelter site.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Zafar, Zahid Ali; Imtiaz, Sumair; Razaq, Rameez; Ji, Shengnan; Huang, Taizhong; Zhang, Zhaoliang; Huang, Yunhui; Anderson, James A. (2017-03-21). "Cathode materials for rechargeable aluminum batteries: current status and progress" (in en). Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5 (12): 5646–5660. doi:10.1039/C7TA00282C. ISSN 2050-7496. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2017/ta/c7ta00282c. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Das, Shyamal K.; Mahapatra, Sadhan; Lahan, Homen (2017). "Aluminum-ion batteries: developments and challenges". Journal of Materials Chemistry A 5 (14): 6347–6367. doi:10.1039/c7ta00228a. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Blain, Loz (2022-08-24). "Rechargeable aluminum: The cheap solution to seasonal energy storage?" (in en-US). https://newatlas.com/energy/reveal-aluminum-energy-storage/. 
  4. ↑ Eftekhari, Ali; Corrochano, Pablo (2017). "Electrochemical Energy Storage by Aluminum As a Lightweight and Cheap Anode/Charge Carrier". Sustainable Energy & Fuels 1 (6): 1246–1264. doi:10.1039/C7SE00050B. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Faegh, Ehsan; Ng, Benjamin; Hayman, Dillon; Mustain, William E. (Jan 2021). "Practical assessment of the performance of aluminium battery technologies" (in en). Nature Energy 6 (1): 21–29. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-00728-y. ISSN 2058-7546. Bibcode: 2021NatEn...6...21F. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-00728-y. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Abu Nayem, S. M.; Ahmad, Aziz; Shah, Syed Shaheen; Alzahrani, Atif Saeed; Ahammad, A. J. Saleh; Aziz, Md. Abdul (Sep 12, 2022). "High Performance and Long‐cycle Life Rechargeable Aluminum Ion Battery: Recent Progress, Perspectives and Challenges" (in en). The Chemical Record 22 (12): e202200181. doi:10.1002/tcr.202200181. ISSN 1527-8999. PMID 36094785. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tcr.202200181. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Lin, Meng- Chang; Gong, Ming; Lu, Bingan; Wu, Yingpeng; Wang, Di-Yan; Guan, Mingyun; Angell, Michael; Chen, Changxin et al. (6 April 2015). "An ultrafast rechargeable aluminium-ion battery". Nature 520 (7547): 324–328. doi:10.1038/nature14340. PMID 25849777. Bibcode: 2015Natur.520..324L. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Team designs aluminum-ion batteries with graphene electrode". https://www.graphene-info.com/team-designs-aluminum-ion-batteries-graphene-electrode. Retrieved 1 March 2018. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Armand, M.; Tarascon, J.-M (2008). "Building better batteries". Nature 451 (7179): 652–657. doi:10.1038/451652a. PMID 18256660. Bibcode: 2008Natur.451..652A. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Zhao, Qing; Zachman, Michael J.; Al Sadat, Wajdi I.; Zheng, Jingxu; Kourkoutis, Lena F.; Archer, Lynden (2018-11-02). "Solid electrolyte interphases for high-energy aqueous aluminum electrochemical cells" (in en). Science Advances 4 (11): eaau8131. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau8131. ISSN 2375-2548. PMID 30515458. Bibcode: 2018SciA....4.8131Z. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Yu, Zhijing; Xie, Yafang; Wang, Wei; Hong, Jichao; Ge, Jianbang (April 11, 2023). "Selection principles of polymeric frameworks for solid-state electrolytes of non-aqueous aluminum-ion batteries". Frontiers in Chemistry 11. doi:10.3389/fchem.2023.1190102. ISSN 2296-2646. PMID 37113502. Bibcode: 2023FrCh...1190102Y. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Huang, Zheng; Song, Wei‐Li; Liu, Yingjun; Wang, Wei; Wang, Mingyong; Ge, Jianbang; Jiao, Handong; Jiao, Shuqiang (Dec 8, 2021). "Stable Quasi‐Solid‐State Aluminum Batteries" (in en). Advanced Materials 34 (8): e2104557. doi:10.1002/adma.202104557. ISSN 0935-9648. PMID 34877722. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adma.202104557. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 Zhang, Shuqing; Liu, Zhidong; Liu, Ruxiang; Du, Li; Zheng, Li; Liu, Zhiyuan; Li, Kaiming; Lin, Meng-Chang et al. (2023-08-15). "A facile in-situ polymerization of cross-linked Poly(ethyl acrylate)-Based gel polymer electrolytes for rechargeable aluminum batteries". Journal of Power Sources 575: 233110. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2023.233110. ISSN 0378-7753. Bibcode: 2023JPS...57533110Z. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775323004858. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Yang, Huicong; Li, Hucheng; Li, Juan; Sun, Zhenhua; He, Kuang; Cheng, Hui‐Ming; Li, Feng (Jan 27, 2019). "The Rechargeable Aluminum Battery: Opportunities and Challenges" (in en). Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58 (35): 11978–11996. doi:10.1002/anie.201814031. ISSN 1433-7851. PMID 30687993. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.201814031. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 National Laboratory, Oak Ridge. "Aluminum-Ion Battery to Transform 21st Century Energy Storage". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. http://web.ornl.gov/adm/partnerships/factsheets/10-G01216_ID2383.pdf. Retrieved 30 October 2014. 
  16. ↑ Colmenares, Clinton. "Battery power: Aluminum ion competes with lithium in Clemson Nanomaterials Institute study". http://newsstand.clemson.edu/mediarelations/battery-power-aluminum-ion-outperforms-lithium-in-clemson-nanomaterials-institute-study/. Retrieved 1 March 2018. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Paranthaman, brown, M. Parans, Gilbert. "Aluminium ION Battery". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. http://web.ornl.gov/adm/partnerships/events/presentations/spark_aluminum_ion_battery.pdf. Retrieved 12 November 2014. 
  18. ↑ Dai, Hongjie; Hwang, Bing-Joe; Yang, Jiang; Chen, Changxin; Angell, Michael; Guan, Mingyun; Wang, Di-Yan; Wu, Yingpeng et al. (April 2015). "An ultrafast rechargeable aluminium-ion battery". Nature 520 (7547): 324–328. doi:10.1038/nature14340. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25849777. Bibcode: 2015Natur.520..324L. 
  19. ↑ Passerini, S.; Loeffler, N.; Kim, G.-T.; Montanino, M.; Carewska, M.; Appetecchi, G. B.; Simonetti, E.; Moreno, M. (1 January 2017). "Ionic Liquid Electrolytes for Safer Lithium Batteries I. Investigation around Optimal Formulation". Journal of the Electrochemical Society 164 (1): A6026–A6031. doi:10.1149/2.0051701jes. ISSN 0013-4651. 
  20. ↑ Lavars, Nick (2021-04-06). "3D aluminum electrode enables low-cost battery to go the distance" (in en-US). https://newatlas.com/energy/3d-aluminum-electrode-low-cost-battery-renewable-energy/. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Teschler, Leland (23 March 2012). "Goodbye to lithium-ion batteries". machine design. http://machinedesign.com/news/goodbye-lithium-ion-batteries. Retrieved 12 November 2014. 
  22. ↑ Jayaprakash, N.; Das, S.K.; Archer, L.A (2011). "The rechargeable aluminum-ion battery". Chemical Communications (rsc) 47 (47): 12610–2. doi:10.1039/C1CC15779E. PMID 22051794. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/33734/2/The%20Rechargeable%20Aluminum-ion%20Battery.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Aluminum-Ion Battery Cell Is Durable, Fast-Charging, Bendable: Stanford Inventors (Video), John Voelcker, 8 April 2015, Green Car Reports
  24. ↑ "Stanford Researchers Unveil New Ultrafast Charging Aluminum-Ion Battery". scientificamerican.com. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/plugged-in/2015/04/14/stanford-researchers-unveil-new-ultrafast-charging-aluminum-ion-battery. 
  25. ↑ Lin, Meng-Chang; Gong, Ming; Lu, Bingan; Wu, Yingpeng; Wang, Di-Yan; Guan, Mingyun; Angell, Michael; Chen, Changxin et al. (9 April 2015). "An ultrafast rechargeable aluminium-ion battery". Nature 520 (7547): 324–328. doi:10.1038/nature14340. PMID 25849777. Bibcode: 2015Natur.520..324L. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14340. 
  26. ↑ "Ultrafast Rechargeable Aluminum-ion Battery". https://www.itri.org.tw/eng/Content/MSGPic01/contents.aspx?&SiteID=1&MmmID=620651711540203650&CatID=620653256325611005&MSID=654276522356353763. Retrieved 2 March 2018. 
  27. ↑ Flynn, Jackie (7 February 2017). "Stanford engineers create a low-cost battery for storing renewable energy". https://news.stanford.edu/press-releases/2017/02/07/stanford-engineerenewable-energy/. Retrieved 1 March 2018. 
  28. ↑ Angell, Michael; Pan, Chun-Jern; Rong, Youmin; Yuan, Chunze; Lin, Meng-Chang; Hwang, Bing-Joe; Dai, Hongjie (2017). "High Coulombic efficiency aluminum-ion battery using an AlCl3-urea ionic liquid analog electrolyte". PNAS 114 (5): 834–839. doi:10.1073/pnas.1619795114. PMID 28096353. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114..834A. 
  29. ↑ HIGH SPECIFIC ENERGY ALUMINIUM-ION RECHARGEABLE DECENTRALIZED ELECTRICITY GENERATION SOURCES on cordis.europa.eu
  30. ↑ "ALION: Aluminium-Ion batteries". 19 June 2015. https://projects.leitat.org/horizon-2020-alion-project-kick-off-meeting-leitat-2/. 
  31. ↑ "Aluminium-Ion Batteries: A Promising Technology for Stationary Applications". 14 June 2019. https://projects.leitat.org/aluminium-ion-batteries-a-promising-technology-for-stationary-applications/. Retrieved 11 July 2019. 
  32. ↑ Gao, Tao; Li, Xiaogang; Wang, Xiwen; Hu, Junkai; Han, Fudong; Fan, Xiulin; Suo, Liumin; Pearse, Alex J et al. (16 August 2016). "A Rechargeable Al/S Battery with an Ionic-Liquid Electrolyte". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 55 (34): 9898–9901. doi:10.1002/anie.201603531. ISSN 1521-3773. PMID 27417442. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Irving, Michael (2022-08-25). "Battery made of aluminum, sulfur and salt proves fast, safe and low-cost" (in en-US). https://newatlas.com/energy/aluminum-sulfur-salt-battery-fast-safe-low-cost/. 
  34. ↑ Brahambhatt, Rupendra (2022-08-26). "New aluminum batteries could be the dirt cheap alternative to lithium-ion that we've all been waiting for" (in en-US). https://www.zmescience.com/science/news-science/new-aluminum-batteries-could-be-the-dirt-cheap-alternative-to-lithium-ion-that-weve-all-been-waiting-for/. 
  35. ↑ Paraskova, Tsvetana (1 October 2019). "Is This The End Of The Lithium-Ion Battery?" (in en). https://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/Is-This-The-End-Of-The-Lithium-Ion-Battery.html. 
  36. ↑ Joseph, Jickson; Nerkar, Jawahar; Tang, Cheng; Du, Aijun; O'Mullane, Anthony P.; Ostrikov, Kostya (Ken) (2019). "Reversible Intercalation of Multivalent Al3+ Ions into Potassium-Rich Cryptomelane Nanowires for Aqueous Rechargeable Al-Ion Batteries" (in en). ChemSusChem 12 (16): 3753–3760. doi:10.1002/cssc.201901182. ISSN 1864-564X. PMID 31102343. 
  37. ↑ Flaherty, Nick (2017). "Aluminium graphene battery outperforms lithium". http://www.eenewspower.com/news/aluminium-graphene-battery-outperforms-lithium. 
  38. ↑ "Al-ion battery retains 92% capacity after 250,000 charge cycles". 10 January 2018. https://www.elektormagazine.com/news/al-ion-battery-with-92-capacity-after-250-000-charge-cycles. 
  39. ↑ "Chinese scientists develop fast-charging aluminum-graphene battery - Xinhua | English.news.cn". http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-12/23/c_136847756.htm. 

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