Chemistry:Indium tin oxide

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Short description: Chemical compound

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is a ternary composition of indium, tin and oxygen in varying proportions. Depending on the oxygen content, it can be described as either a ceramic or an alloy. Indium tin oxide is typically encountered as an oxygen-saturated composition with a formulation of 74% In, 8% Sn, and 18% O by weight. Oxygen-saturated compositions are so typical that unsaturated compositions are termed oxygen-deficient ITO. It is transparent and colorless in thin layers, while in bulk form it is yellowish to gray. In the infrared region of the spectrum it acts as a metal-like mirror.

Indium tin oxide is one of the most widely used transparent conducting oxides because of its electrical conductivity and optical transparency, the ease with which it can be deposited as a thin film, and its chemical resistance to moisture. As with all transparent conducting films, a compromise must be made between conductivity and transparency, since increasing the thickness and increasing the concentration of charge carriers increases the film's conductivity, but decreases its transparency.

Thin films of indium tin oxide are most commonly deposited on surfaces by physical vapor deposition. Often used is electron beam evaporation, or a range of sputter deposition techniques.

Material and properties

Absorption of glass and ITO glass.

ITO is a mixed oxide of indium and tin with a melting point in the range 1526–1926 °C (1800–2200 K, 2800–3500 °F), depending on composition. The most commonly used material is an oxide of a composition of ca. In4Sn. The material is a n-type semiconductor with a large bandgap of around 4 eV. ITO is both transparent to visible light and relatively conductive. It has a low electrical resistivity of ~10−4 Ω·cm, and a thin film can have an optical transmittance of greater than 80%.[1] These properties are utilized to great advantage in touch-screen applications such as mobile phones.

Common uses

Thin film interference caused by ITO coating on an Airbus cockpit window, used for defrosting.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is an optoelectronic material that is applied widely in both research and industry. ITO can be used for many applications, such as flat-panel displays, smart windows, polymer-based electronics, thin film photovoltaics, glass doors of supermarket freezers, and architectural windows. Moreover, ITO thin films for glass substrates can be helpful for glass windows to conserve energy.[2]

ITO green tapes are utilized for the production of lamps that are electroluminescent, functional, and fully flexible.[3] Also, ITO thin films are used primarily to serve as coatings that are anti-reflective and for liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and electroluminescence, where the thin films are used as conducting, transparent electrodes.[4]

ITO is often used to make transparent conductive coating for displays such as liquid crystal displays, OLED displays, plasma displays, touch panels, and electronic ink applications. Thin films of ITO are also used in organic light-emitting diodes, solar cells, antistatic coatings and EMI shieldings. In organic light-emitting diodes, ITO is used as the anode (hole injection layer).

ITO films deposited on windshields are used for defrosting aircraft windshields. The heat is generated by applying a voltage across the film. ITO is also used to reflect electromagnetic radiation. The F-22 Raptor's canopy has an ITO coating that reflects radar waves, enhancing its stealth capabilities and giving it a distinctive gold tint.[5]

ITO is also used for various optical coatings, most notably infrared-reflecting coatings (hot mirrors) for automotive, and sodium vapor lamp glasses. Other uses include gas sensors,[6] antireflection coatings, electrowetting on dielectrics, and Bragg reflectors for VCSEL lasers. ITO is also used as the IR reflector for low-e window panes. ITO was also used as a sensor coating in the later Kodak DCS cameras, starting with the Kodak DCS 520, as a means of increasing blue channel response.[7]

ITO thin film strain gauges can operate at temperatures up to 1400 °C and can be used in harsh environments, such as gas turbines, jet engines, and rocket engines.[8]

Alternative synthesis methods and alternative materials

Because of high cost and limited supply of indium, the fragility and lack of flexibility of ITO layers, and the costly layer deposition requiring vacuum, alternative methods of preparing ITO and alternative materials are being investigated.[9] Promising alternatives based on zinc oxide doped with various elements.[10]

Doped compounds

Several transition metal dopants in indium oxide, particularly molybdenum, give much higher electron mobility and conductivity than obtained with tin.[11] Doped binary compounds such as aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO) and indium-doped cadmium oxide have been proposed as alternative materials. Other inorganic alternatives include aluminum, gallium or indium-doped zinc oxide (AZO, GZO or IZO).

Carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotube conductive coatings are a prospective replacement.[12][13]

Graphene

As another carbon-based alternative, films of graphene are flexible and have been shown to allow 90% transparency with a lower electrical resistance than standard ITO.[14] Thin metal films are also seen as a potential replacement material. A hybrid material alternative currently being tested is an electrode made of silver nanowires and covered with graphene. The advantages to such materials include maintaining transparency while simultaneously being electrically conductive and flexible.[15]

Conductive polymers

Inherently conductive polymers (ICPs) are also being developed for some ITO applications.[16][17] Typically the conductivity is lower for conducting polymers, such as polyaniline and PEDOT:PSS, than for inorganic materials, but they are more flexible, less expensive and more environmentally friendly in processing and manufacture.

Amorphous indium–zinc oxide

In order to reduce indium content, decrease processing difficulty, and improve electrical homogeneity, amorphous transparent conducting oxides have been developed. One such material, amorphous indium-zinc-oxide maintains short-range order even though crystallization is disrupted by the difference in the ratio of oxygen to metal atoms between In2O3 and ZnO. Indium-zinc-oxide has some comparable properties to ITO.[18] The amorphous structure remains stable even up to 500 °C, which allows for important processing steps common in organic solar cells.[9] The improvement in homogeneity significantly enhances the usability of the material in the case of organic solar cells. Areas of poor electrode performance in organic solar cells render a percentage of the cell's area unusable.[19]

Silver nanoparticle–ITO hybrid

Process of the silver nanoparticle (AgNP) into the polymer (PET) substrate

ITO has been popularly used as a high-quality flexible substrate to produce flexible electronics.[20] However, this substrate's flexibility decreases as its conductivity improves. Previous research have indicated that the mechanical properties of ITO can be improved through increasing the degree of crystallinity.[21] Doping with silver (Ag) can improve this property, but results in a loss of transparency.[22] An improved method that embeds Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) instead of homogeneously to create a hybrid ITO has proven to be effective in compensating for the decrease in transparency. The hybrid ITO consists of domains in one orientation grown on the AgNPs and a matrix of the other orientation. The domains are stronger than the matrix and function as barriers to crack propagation, significantly increasing the flexibility. The change in resistivity with increased bending significantly decreases in the hybrid ITO compared with homogeneous ITO.[23]

Alternative synthesis methods

Tape casting process

ITO is typically deposited through expensive and energy-intensive processes that deal with physical vapor deposition (PVD). Such processes include sputtering, which results in the formation of brittle layers.[citation needed] An alternative process that uses a particle-based technique, is known as the tape casting process. Because it is a particle-based technique, the ITO nano-particles are dispersed first, then placed in organic solvents for stability. Benzyl phthalate plasticizer and polyvinyl butyral binder have been shown to be helpful in preparing nanoparticle slurries. Once the tape casting process has been carried out, the characterization of the green ITO tapes showed that optimal transmission went up to about 75%, with a lower bound on the electrical resistance of 2 Ω·cm.[3]

Laser sintering

Using ITO nanoparticles imposes a limit on the choice of substrate, owing to the high temperature required for sintering. As an alternative starting material, In-Sn alloy nanoparticles allow for a more diverse range of possible substrates.[24] A continuous conductive In-Sn alloy film is formed firstly, followed by oxidation to bring transparency. This two step process involves thermal annealing, which requires special atmosphere control and increased processing time. Because metal nanoparticles can be converted easily into a conductive metal film under the treatment of laser, laser sintering is applied to achieve products' homogeneous morphology. Laser sintering is also easy and less costly to use since it can be performed in air.[25]

Ambient gas conditions

For example, using conventional methods but varying the ambient gas conditions to improve the optoelectronic properties[26] as, for example, oxygen plays a major role in the properties of ITO.[27]

Chemical shaving for very thin films

There has been numerical modeling of plasmonic metallic nanostructures have shown great potential as a method of light management in thin-film nanodisc-patterned hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) solar photovoltaic (PV) cells. A problem that arises for plasmonic-enhanced PV devices is the requirement for 'ultra-thin' transparent conducting oxides (TCOs) with high transmittance and low enough resistivity to be used as device top contacts/electrodes. Unfortunately, most work on TCOs is on relatively thick layers and the few reported cases of thin TCO showed a marked decrease in conductivity. To overcome this it is possible to first grow a thick layer and then chemically shave it down to obtain a thin layer that is whole and highly conductive.[28]

Constraints and trade-offs

A major concern with ITO is its cost. ITO costs several times more than aluminium zinc oxide (AZO). AZO is a common choice of transparent conducting oxide (TCO) because of its lower cost and relatively good optical transmission performance in the solar spectrum. However, ITO is superior to AZO in many other important performance categories including chemical resistance to moisture. ITO is not affected by moisture, and is stable as part of copper indium gallium selenide solar cell for 25–30 years on a rooftop.

While the sputtering target or evaporative material that is used to deposit the ITO is significantly more costly than AZO, the amount of material placed on each cell is quite small. Therefore, the cost penalty per cell is quite small, too.

Benefits

Surface morphology changes in Al:ZnO and i-/Al:ZnO upon damp heat (DH) exposure (optical interferometry)[29]

The primary advantage of ITO compared to AZO as a transparent conductor for LCDs is that ITO can be precisely etched into fine patterns.[30] AZO cannot be etched as precisely: It is so sensitive to acid that it tends to get over-etched by an acid treatment.[30]

Another benefit of ITO compared to AZO is that if moisture does penetrate, ITO will degrade less than AZO.[29]

The role of ITO glass as a cell culture substrate can be extended easily, which opens up new opportunities for studies on growing cells involving electron microscopy and correlative light.[31]

Research examples

ITO can be used in nanotechnology to provide a path to a new generation of solar cells. Solar cells made with these devices have the potential to provide low-cost, ultra-lightweight, and flexible cells with a wide range of applications. Because of the nanoscale dimensions of the nanorods, quantum-size effects influence their optical properties. By tailoring the size of the rods, they can be made to absorb light within a specific narrow band of colors. By stacking several cells with different sized rods, a broad range of wavelengths across the solar spectrum can be collected and converted to energy. Moreover, the nanoscale volume of the rods leads to a significant reduction in the amount of semiconductor material needed compared to a conventional cell.[32][33] Recent studies demonstrated that nanostructured ITO can behave as a miniaturized photocapacitor, combining in a unique material the absorption and storage of light energy.[34]

Health and safety

Inhalation of indium tin oxide may cause mild irritation to the respiratory tracts and should be avoided. If exposure is long-term, symptoms may become chronic and result in benign pneumoconiosis. Studies with animals indicate that indium tin oxide is toxic when ingested, along with negative effects on the kidney, lung, and heart.[35]

During the process of mining, production and reclamation, workers are potentially exposed to indium, especially in countries such as China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Canada[36] and face the possibility of pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, pulmonary fibrosis, emphysema, and granulomas. Workers in the US, China, and Japan have been diagnosed with cholesterol clefts under indium exposure.[37] Silver nanoparticles existed in improved ITOs have been found in vitro to penetrate through both intact and breached skin into the epidermal layer. Un-sintered ITOs are suspected of induce T-cell-mediated sensitization: on an intradermal exposure study, a concentration of 5% uITO resulted in lymphocyte proliferation in mice including the number increase of cells through a 10-day period.[38]

A new occupational problem called indium lung disease was developed through contact with indium-containing dusts. The first patient is a worker associated with wet surface grinding of ITO who suffered from interstitial pneumonia: his lung was filled with ITO related particles.[39] These particles can also induce cytokine production and macrophage dysfunction. Sintered ITOs particles alone can cause phagocytic dysfunction but not cytokine release in macrophage cells; however, they can intrigue a pro-inflammatory cytokine response in pulmonary epithelial cells. Unlike uITO, they can also bring endotoxin to workers handling the wet process if in contact with endotoxin-containing liquids. This can be attributed to the fact that sITOs have larger diameter and smaller surface area, and that this change after the sintering process can cause cytotoxicity.[40]

Because of these issues, alternatives to ITO have been found.[41][42]

Recycling

Process of indium-tin-oxide (ITO) etching wastewater treatment

The etching water used in the process of sintering ITO can only be used for a limited numbers of times before it has to be disposed. After degradation, the waste water should still contain valuable metals such as In and Cu as a secondary resource as well as Mo, Cu, Al, Sn and In, which can pose a health hazard to human beings.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Chen, Zhangxian (2013). "Fabrication of Highly Transparent and Conductive Indium–Tin Oxide Thin Films with a High Figure of Merit via Solution Processing". Langmuir 29 (45): 13836–13842. doi:10.1021/la4033282. PMID 24117323. 
  2. ↑ Kim, H.; Gilmore, C. M.; Piqué, A.; Horwitz, J. S.; Mattoussi, H.; Murata, H.; Kafafi, Z. H.; Chrisey, D. B. (December 1999). "Electrical, optical, and structural properties of indium–tin–oxide thin films for organic light-emitting devices". Journal of Applied Physics 86 (11): 6451–6461. doi:10.1063/1.371708. Bibcode: 1999JAP....86.6451K. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Straue, Nadja; Rauscher, Martin; Dressler, Martina; Roosen, Andreas; Moreno, R. (February 2012). "Tape Casting of ITO Green Tapes for Flexible Electroluminescent Lamps". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 95 (2): 684–689. doi:10.1111/j.1551-2916.2011.04836.x. 
  4. ↑ Du, Jian; Chen, Xin-liang; Liu, Cai-chi; Ni, Jian; Hou, Guo-fu; Zhao, Ying; Zhang, Xiao-dan (24 April 2014). "Highly transparent and conductive indium tin oxide thin films for solar cells grown by reactive thermal evaporation at low temperature". Applied Physics A 117 (2): 815–822. doi:10.1007/s00339-014-8436-x. Bibcode: 2014ApPhA.117..815D. 
  5. ↑ Sweetman, Bill (1998) (in en). F-22 Raptor. MBI Publishing Company. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-61060-143-6. 
  6. ↑ Mokrushin, Artem S.; Fisenko, Nikita A.; Gorobtsov, Philipp Yu; Simonenko, Tatiana L.; Glumov, Oleg V.; Melnikova, Natalia A.; Simonenko, Nikolay P.; Bukunov, Kirill A. et al. (2021-01-01). "Pen plotter printing of ITO thin film as a highly CO sensitive component of a resistive gas sensor" (in en). Talanta 221: 121455. doi:10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121455. ISSN 0039-9140. PMID 33076078. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039914020307463. 
  7. ↑ Increasing the Blue Channel Response. Technical Information Bulletin. kodak.com
  8. ↑ Luo, Qing (1 January 2001). Indium tin oxide thin film strain gages for use at elevated temperatures (Thesis). pp. 1–146. Archived from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Fortunato, E.; D. Ginley; H. Hosono; D.C. Paine (March 2007). "Transparent Conducting Oxides for Photovoltaics". MRS Bulletin 32 (3): 242–247. doi:10.1557/mrs2007.29. 
  10. ↑ Akhmedov, Akhmed; Abduev, Aslan; Murliev, Eldar; Asvarov, Abil; Muslimov, Arsen; Kanevsky, Vladimir (January 2021). "The ZnO-In2O3 Oxide System as a Material for Low-Temperature Deposition of Transparent Electrodes" (in en). Materials 14 (22): 6859. doi:10.3390/ma14226859. ISSN 1996-1944. PMID 34832261. Bibcode: 2021Mate...14.6859A. 
  11. ↑ Swallow, Jack E. N.; Williamson, Benjamin A. D.; Sathasivam, Sanjayan; Birkett, Max; Featherstone, Thomas J.; Murgatroyd, Philip A. E.; Edwards, Holly J.; Lebens-Higgins, Zachary W. et al. (2019). "Resonant doping for high mobility transparent conductors: the case of Mo-doped In2O3". Materials Horizons 7: 236–243. doi:10.1039/c9mh01014a. 
  12. ↑ "Researchers find replacement for rare material indium tin oxide" (online). R&D Magazine (Advantage Business Media). 11 April 2011. http://www.rdmag.com/News/2011/04/Materials-Researchers-find-replacement-for-rare-material-indium-tin-oxid/. 
  13. ↑ Kyrylyuk, Andriy V.; Hermant, Marie Claire; Schilling, Tanja; Klumperman, Bert; Koning, Cor E.; van der Schoot, Paul (10 April 2011). "Controlling electrical percolation in multicomponent carbon nanotube dispersions". Nature Nanotechnology 6 (6): 364–369. doi:10.1038/nnano.2011.40. PMID 21478868. Bibcode: 2011NatNa...6..364K. 
  14. ↑ ServiceJun. 20, Robert F. (20 June 2010). "Graphene Finally Goes Big". Science (AAAS). https://www.science.org/content/article/graphene-finally-goes-big. 
  15. ↑ Chen, Ruiyi; Das, Suprem R.; Jeong, Changwook; Khan, Mohammad Ryyan; Janes, David B.; Alam, Muhammad A. (6 November 2013). "Co-Percolating Graphene-Wrapped Silver Nanowire Network for High Performance, Highly Stable, Transparent Conducting Electrodes". Advanced Functional Materials 23 (41): 5150–5158. doi:10.1002/adfm.201300124. 
  16. ↑ Xia, Yijie; Sun, Kuan; Ouyang, Jianyong (8 May 2012). "Solution-Processed Metallic Conducting Polymer Films as Transparent Electrode of Optoelectronic Devices". Advanced Materials 24 (18): 2436–2440. doi:10.1002/adma.201104795. PMID 22488584. 
  17. ↑ Saghaei, Jaber; Fallahzadeh, Ali; Saghaei, Tayebeh (September 2015). "ITO-free organic solar cells using highly conductive phenol-treated PEDOT:PSS anodes". Organic Electronics 24: 188–194. doi:10.1016/j.orgel.2015.06.002. 
  18. ↑ Ito, N.; Sato, Y.; Song, P.K.; Kaijio, A.; Inoue, K.; Shigesato, Y. (February 2006). "Electrical and optical properties of amorphous indium zinc oxide films". Thin Solid Films 496 (1): 99–103. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2005.08.257. Bibcode: 2006TSF...496...99I. 
  19. ↑ Irwin, Michael D.; Liu, Jun; Leever, Benjamin J.; Servaites, Jonathan D.; Hersam, Mark C.; Durstock, Michael F.; Marks, Tobin J. (16 February 2010). "Consequences of Anode Interfacial Layer Deletion. HCl-Treated ITO in P3HT:PCBM-Based Bulk-Heterojunction Organic Photovoltaic Devices". Langmuir 26 (4): 2584–2591. doi:10.1021/la902879h. PMID 20014804. 
  20. ↑ Lu, Nanshu; Lu, Chi; Yang, Shixuan; Rogers, John (10 October 2012). "Highly Sensitive Skin-Mountable Strain Gauges Based Entirely on Elastomers". Advanced Functional Materials 22 (19): 4044–4050. doi:10.1002/adfm.201200498. 
  21. ↑ Kim, Eun-Hye; Yang, Chan-Woo; Park, Jin-Woo (15 February 2011). "The crystallinity and mechanical properties of indium tin oxide coatings on polymer substrates". Journal of Applied Physics 109 (4): 043511–043511–8. doi:10.1063/1.3556452. Bibcode: 2011JAP...109d3511K. 
  22. ↑ Yang, Chan-Woo; Park, Jin-Woo (May 2010). "The cohesive crack and buckle delamination resistances of indium tin oxide (ITO) films on polymeric substrates with ductile metal interlayers". Surface and Coatings Technology 204 (16–17): 2761–2766. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2010.02.033. 
  23. ↑ Triambulo, Ross E.; Kim, Jung-Hoon; Na, Min-Young; Chang, Hye-Jung; Park, Jin-Woo (17 June 2013). "Highly flexible, hybrid-structured indium tin oxides for transparent electrodes on polymer substrates". Applied Physics Letters 102 (24): 241913. doi:10.1063/1.4812187. Bibcode: 2013ApPhL.102x1913T. 
  24. ↑ Ohsawa, Masato; Sakio, Susumu; Saito, Kazuya (2011). "ITO透明導電膜形成用ナノ粒子インクの開発" (in ja). Journal of Japan Institute of Electronics Packaging 14 (6): 453–459. doi:10.5104/jiep.14.453. 
  25. ↑ Qin, Gang; Fan, Lidan; Watanabe, Akira (January 2016). "Formation of indium tin oxide film by wet process using laser sintering". Journal of Materials Processing Technology 227: 16–23. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.07.011. 
  26. ↑ Marikkannan, M.; Subramanian, M.; Mayandi, J.; Tanemura, M.; Vishnukanthan, V.; Pearce, J. M. (January 2015). "Effect of ambient combinations of argon, oxygen, and hydrogen on the properties of DC magnetron sputtered indium tin oxide films". AIP Advances 5 (1): 017128. doi:10.1063/1.4906566. Bibcode: 2015AIPA....5a7128M. 
  27. ↑ Gwamuri, Jephias; Marikkannan, Murugesan; Mayandi, Jeyanthinath; Bowen, Patrick; Pearce, Joshua (20 January 2016). "Influence of Oxygen Concentration on the Performance of Ultra-Thin RF Magnetron Sputter Deposited Indium Tin Oxide Films as a Top Electrode for Photovoltaic Devices". Materials 9 (1): 63. doi:10.3390/ma9010063. PMID 28787863. Bibcode: 2016Mate....9...63G. 
  28. ↑ Gwamuri, Jephias; Vora, Ankit; Mayandi, Jeyanthinath; Güney, Durdu Ö.; Bergstrom, Paul L.; Pearce, Joshua M. (May 2016). "A new method of preparing highly conductive ultra-thin indium tin oxide for plasmonic-enhanced thin film solar photovoltaic devices". Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 149: 250–257. doi:10.1016/j.solmat.2016.01.028. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Pern, John (December 2008). "Stability Issues of Transparent Conducting Oxides (TCOs) for Thin-Film Photovoltaics". U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/44665.pdf. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 David Ginley (11 September 2010). Handbook of Transparent Conductors. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 524–. ISBN 978-1-4419-1638-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=K0qjBlrAGYsC&pg=PA524. 
  31. ↑ Pluk, H.; Stokes, D.J.; Lich, B.; Wieringa, B.; Fransen, J. (March 2009). "Advantages of indium-tin oxide-coated glass slides in correlative scanning electron microscopy applications of uncoated cultured cells". Journal of Microscopy 233 (3): 353–363. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2818.2009.03140.x. PMID 19250456. 
  32. ↑ National Nanotechnology Initiative. "Energy Conversion and Storage: New Materials and Processes for Energy Needs". http://www.nano.gov/html/res/fy04-pdf/fy04%20-%20small%20parts/NNI_FY04_R_mode2_part8.pdf. 
  33. ↑ "National Nanotechnology Initiative Research and Development Supporting the next Industrial Revolution". nano.gov. p. 29. http://nano.gov/sites/default/files/pub_resource/nni04_budget_supplement.pdf. 
  34. ↑ Ghini, Michele; Curreli, Nicola; Camellini, Andrea; Wang, Mengjiao; Asaithambi, Aswin; Kriegel, Ilka (2021). "Photodoping of metal oxide nanocrystals for multi-charge accumulation and light-driven energy storage". Nanoscale 13 (19): 8773–8783. doi:10.1039/d0nr09163d. PMID 33959732. 
  35. ↑ Hosono, Hideo; Kurita, Masaaki; Kawazoe, Hiroshi (1 October 1998). "Excimer Laser Crystallization of Amorphous Indium-Tin-Oxide and Its Application to Fine Patterning". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 37 (Part 2, No. 10A): L1119–L1121. doi:10.1143/JJAP.37.L1119. Bibcode: 1998JaJAP..37L1119H. 
  36. ↑ POLINARES (EU Policy on Natural Resources, 2012). Fact sheet: Indium. [last accessed 20 Mar 2013]
  37. ↑ Cummings, Kristin J.; Nakano, Makiko; Omae, Kazuyuki; Takeuchi, Koichiro; Chonan, Tatsuya; Xiao, Yong-long; Harley, Russell A.; Roggli, Victor L. et al. (June 2012). "Indium Lung Disease". Chest 141 (6): 1512–1521. doi:10.1378/chest.11-1880. PMID 22207675. 
  38. ↑ Brock, Kristie; Anderson, Stacey E.; Lukomska, Ewa; Long, Carrie; Anderson, Katie; Marshall, Nikki; Jean Meade, B. (29 October 2013). "Immune stimulation following dermal exposure to unsintered indium tin oxide". Journal of Immunotoxicology 11 (3): 268–272. doi:10.3109/1547691X.2013.843620. PMID 24164313. 
  39. ↑ Homma, Toshiaki; Ueno, Takahiro; Sekizawa, Kiyohisa; Tanaka, Akiyo; Hirata, Miyuki (4 July 2003). "Interstitial Pneumonia Developed in a Worker Dealing with Particles Containing Indium-tin Oxide". Journal of Occupational Health 45 (3): 137–139. doi:10.1539/joh.45.137. PMID 14646287. 
  40. ↑ Badding, Melissa A.; Schwegler-Berry, Diane; Park, Ju-Hyeong; Fix, Natalie R.; Cummings, Kristin J.; Leonard, Stephen S.; Ojcius, David M. (13 April 2015). "Sintered Indium-Tin Oxide Particles Induce Pro-Inflammatory Responses In Vitro, in Part through Inflammasome Activation". PLOS ONE 10 (4): e0124368. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124368. PMID 25874458. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1024368B. 
  41. ↑ Ichiki, Akira; Shirasaki, Yuichi; Ito, Tadashi; Sorori, Tadahiro; Kegasawa, Tadahiro (2017). "タッチパネル用薄型両面センサーフィルム「エクスクリア」の開発" (in ja). Fuji Film Research & Development. NAID 40021224398. 
  42. ↑ "Environment: [Topics2 Development of Materials That Solve Environmental Issues EXCLEAR thin double-sided sensor film for touch panels | FUJIFILM Holdings"]. https://www.fujifilmholdings.com/en/sustainability/valuePlan2016/process/policy01/environment2016/02.html. 
  43. ↑ Fowler, Bruce A; Yamauchi, Hiroshi; Conner, EA; Akkerman, M (1993). "Cancer risks for humans from exposure to the semiconductor metals". Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health 19: 101–103. PMID 8159952. 
  44. ↑ Chonan, T.; Taguchi, O.; Omae, K. (27 September 2006). "Interstitial pulmonary disorders in indium-processing workers". European Respiratory Journal 29 (2): 317–324. doi:10.1183/09031936.00020306. PMID 17050566. 
  45. ↑ Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (6 August 1999). "Molybdenum". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 37 (2): 231–237. doi:10.1081/clt-100102422. PMID 10382558. 
  46. ↑ Barceloux, Donald G.; Barceloux, Donald (6 August 1999). "Copper". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology 37 (2): 217–230. doi:10.1081/clt-100102421. PMID 10382557. 
  47. ↑ Gupta, Umesh C.; Gupta, Subhas C. (11 November 2008). "Trace element toxicity relationships to crop production and livestock and human health: implications for management". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 29 (11–14): 1491–1522. doi:10.1080/00103629809370045. 
  48. ↑ Hazardous substance factsheet. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services.
  49. ↑ Lenntech Health effects of tin.
  50. ↑ Yokel, R. A. (2014) pp. 116–119 in Encyclopedia of the Neurological Sciences, ed. M. J. Aminoff and R. B. Daroff, Academic Press, Oxford, 2nd ed.

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